Information Security at Al Nahda Hospital Essay

Information Security at Al Nahda Hospital - Essay Example This is because internet users are potential customers and suppliers, and potential threats, as well. In case information stored in the hospital premises is tampered with, serious, adverse effects may result, because there are so many people who are dependent on this information. It is the responsibility of management to liaise with other departments to protect an organization’s information assets. This report analyses and evaluates information security at Al Nahda Hospital. In this report, the main categories of information assets that may be at risk and have to be protected have been described. The report also appraises the actual and potential threats and vulnerabilities of Al Nahda Hospital’s information assets. The report then formulates a security plan that describes counter measures that will manage the threats that put Al Nahda Hospital’s information assets at risk from a risk management perspective. A comprehensive information security education and awar eness program for use by management, staff and contractors for Al Nahda Hospital is also provided in this report. The report also explores the social, legal, and ethical issues or constraints that may be associated with the implementation of the comprehensive information security plan at Al Nahda Hospital. Finally, the report recommends valid actions that can be taken to improve the information security situation of Al Nahda Hospital. Introduction Al Nahda Hospital is a government hospital which is located in Oman. The hospital has a client server application called â€Å"Health Information Management system (HIMS)† on a local network. It also has applications that have been developed with oracle database, forms and reports. Al Nahda Hospital’s medical staff users can access and use the system from a local network using desktops, Personal Computers, or they can use laptops with WIFI, during wards round. Also, this system is connected to the headquarters with MPLS line. Users have access to both the operating system username and password and the database username and password. After a careful assessment of the information security situation, a security plan for the protection of the information holdings of the Al Nahda Hospital is required. The security plan will ensure that the security personnel oversee the security of information from deliberate and accidental threats to the hospital so as to improve Al Nahda Hospital’s information security. 1.0: Main Categories of Information Assets that may be at Risk and have to be protected Al Nahda Hospital’s information assets may be at risk, as far as the information status is concerned. These assets may be categorized into information assets, software, hardware, systems and people. 1.1: Information Assets Information assets of Al Nahda Hospital that may be at risk and need to be protected include documented information. Documented information contains both printed or written information an d electronic information stored on the hospital’s servers, website, extranets and internets. Electronic information can be stored in laptops, personal computers, cell phones, CD ROM and USB sticks, among other devices. The information that may be threatened

Changes to Assist in Immigration Integration

Changes to Assist in Immigration Integration To what extent will recent and proposed changes to the immigration system assist in successful integration of new immigrants? UK Immigration law has recently seen a metamorphic transition. The new Immigration Rules are now in full swing. It is inevitable that any system that is introduced for the first time will either be very beneficial in the successful integration of new immigrants or will have devastating consequences. The introduction of the Points Based System (PBS) for new immigrants seeking to work, train or study in the UK replaces the approximate 80 routes of doing either of the above under the present regime. These Immigration categories have now been streamlined into one single immigration system. Adopting the single system provides clarity in the law and secures a carefully controlled integration of new immigrants. The system is much more straightforward in application. New immigrants can easily ascertain whether they meet the necessary criteria for a particular visa, which will save them time and prevent wastage of costs. The PBS is divided into 5 Tiers. Tier 1 (General) took effect from June 2008.[1]. Tiers 2 5 have been in force since November 2008. Tier 3 has been temporarily suspended and Tier 4 aims to be incorporated by March 2009. Under each Tier, any prospective immigrant would need to score points in order to attain entry clearance. The points have been set by the Migration Advisory Committee. Instrumental to the PBS is the involvement of sponsorship[2]. Another change is the requirement of the entry clearance and the knowledge of the English Language. The objective of Tier 1 is aimed at Highly Skilled Workers (HSW) and the Post Study Work (PSW) schemes, which replaces the former Highly Skilled Migrant Programme, (HSMP) the International Graduates Scheme, (IGS) The Fresh Talent Working in Scotland Scheme and the rules for business-people and innovators, investors, writers, composers and artists[3]. This Tier has been formed in line with bringing in the, â€Å"brightest and the best†[4]. This is good news for some workers, particularly those that do wish to enter on the PSW. The PSW allows a new worker to remain in the country for a period of 2 years and will benefit from good quality training. Employers were previously reluctant to invest in resource training of new recruits who were required to leave the country after 12 months. The process under the old HSMP scheme and the new HSW scheme is very different. Points are given on a sliding scale against requirements such as a degree qualification. The new immigrant needs a score of 75 points or more in order to qualify on the scheme and additional 10 points for the knowledge of English. There is also requirement for those that apply outside the UK; that they must have a bank balance of  £2,800 and those within the UK must have  £800. The purpose is to ensure that the new immigrant is able to support him/herself up until the first salary is received and not be dependant upon Government resources. This minimum financial requirement may appear to be a hindrance for those residing outside the UK. Tier 1 was questioned where foreign Doctors are concerned in the BAPIO[5] case. The House of Lords held that the Department of Health guidance defeated a legitimate expectation held by Doctors in training on the previous HSMP that they would not be prevented from undertaking work. Tier 1 states that a doctor will not be able to undertake employment as a doctor in training up until entry clearance is granted. This is therefore, another procedural obstacle for a UK Immigrant. Tier 2 applies to skilled workers with a job offer and replaces the concept of work permits completely. A skilled foreign worker will obtain 50[6] points and this will depend upon factors such as the person already being in skilled work as well as having an earning capacity of  £24,000 or having a recognised qualification. One way for an immigrant to earn 50 points immediately will be if the UK employer in can show that they cannot fill the required skilled post with a British worker and that the job vacancy has been advertised in the UK. This leads onto the employer passing the Resident Labour Market Test, which refers to the job being in shortage occupation. Tier 2 does not include overseas qualified nurses and midwifes, ground staff of overseas owned airlines, exchange teachers, and language assistants. The list includes a wide range of professionals in the cross section of society, which does not help with the integration of new immigrants with these qualifications. In R v SSHD[7] the Judge raised a concern with the new law regarding highly skilled migrants and those immigrants who have already obtained entry clearance and have not secured a job will constitute as racial discrimination. The Home Office has incorporated the judgement. The previous rules will apply to those UK immigrants who have been adversely affected by the change in law. This is good news for those immigrants that fall under this category. Alongside Tier 2 is the requirement of the certificate of sponsorship which has to be issued to the prospective employer. Prior to this, the Company will have to firstly be registered with the UK Border Agency so that it can obtain a sponsorship license. Skilled workers will be discouraged from coming to the UK and if an organisation is called into question, if faces losing its license and any immigrant working would be required to leave the country within a period of 28 or 60 days. The procedure of carrying out this process is set to cause serious delay to the recruitment of key immigrants and employers will risk losing access to a pool of talent on an international level. Tier 4 only applies to students as overseas ‘adults’. The immigrant must pass a maintenance test and produce supporting documents such as educational qualifications. The long term plan for Autumn 2009 is the emergence of the an IT system to support the student visa route. Whether the overseas ‘adult’ option excludes a section of student is yet to be decided. Tier 5 is currently in existence where temporarily workers wish to come to the UK for primarily non-economic reasons. UK Immigrant must be awarded 30 points and savings of at least  £800. This again may be difficult for some workers who only essentially work on a ’temporary’ basis. The actual criteria to meet has not considerably changed but what has reformed is the legal process. This will have a negative affect on those immigrants that will want to appeal against the decisions and the Asylum Immigration Tribunal(AIT). The Government has produced a consultation paper[8], which proposes to revise the scope for Judicial Review, which will have the prevent the applicant’s right to appeal to the High Court, following a decision of the AIT. The law could deter new immigrants from applying and discriminates against highly skilled individuals who hold the qualifications but not the job to go with it or the financial standing . The law has already been ’tweaked’ in its initial stages that could open up the floodgates for UK immigrants to question other areas of the new law. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books 1. Clayton, G (2008) Immigration and Asylum Law (3rd Edition) Oxford University Press, Oxford 2.Jackson, D Warr, G, Cole, J.0., Middleton, J (2008) Immigration Law and Practice, (4th Edition) Tottel Publishing Journals/Articles Home Office Border Immigration Agency, (2008) The Path to Citizenship: next steps in reforming the Immigration System Home Office Border Immigration Agency (2008) Students under the Points Tier System -(Tier 4)- Implementation Plan Home Office UK Border Agency, Consultation: Immigration Appeals, Fair Decisions; Faster Justice, August 2008 Berry, M (2007) Are your employees eligible to work in the UK?-EEF, the manufacturers organisation Broadway House Tothill Street London Websites http://www.bia.homeoffice.gov.uk/ http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199238668/ -updates on Clayton, G (2008) Immigration on Asylum Law (3rd Edition) Oxford University Press, Oxford Legislation Immigration Rules Border Immigration Agency 2007 Case Law R (on the application of BAPIO Action Ltd another) v SSHD and another [2008] UKHL 27 R(on the application of HSMP Forum Ltd v SSHD [2008] EWHC 004 (Admin) Footnotes [1] Application and requirement methods set out HC321 [2] Tier 1 is exempt from this requirement. Under Tier 5, Youth Mobility, the Government will take the role of a sponsor. [3] Rule HC 607 [4] Home Office Border Immigration Agency, The Path to Citizenship: next steps in reforming the Immigration System, February 2008 [5] R (on the application of BAPIO Action Ltd another) v SSHD and another [2008] UKHL 27 [6] Immigration Rules -Appendix A [7] R(on the application of HSMP Forum Ltd v SSHD [2008] EWHC 004 (Admin) [8] Home Office UK Border Agency, Consultation: Immigration Appeals, Fair Decisions; Faster Justice, August 2008

homes Essay example -- essays research papers

Except for the fairly elaborate chieftains' houses, Greek dwellings remained simple through classical times. A passageway led from the street into an open court off which three or four rooms were reached, the whole being fairly small in scale. The Roman houses, as seen, for example, at Pompeii, also stood at the street's edge. Past a vestibule was an open space called the atrium, from which the sleeping rooms were reached; a colonnaded garden often stood in back. In ancient Rome most people lived in the equivalent of apartment houses, three to five stories high, with apartments ranging from three to six rooms; some were like tenements, others were elaborate. At ground level were rows of small shops. The rich had huge villas outside the cities that were composed of living quarters and pleasure pavilions. IV. Houses of Medieval EuropePrint section This comparative sophistication in housing disappeared during the so-called Dark Ages in Europe. Although castles and primitive manors housed many people, most of the remaining population were packed into simple, unsanitary dwellings huddled within the walls of small cities and towns. The countryside was unsafe, and agriculture and population both declined; the prosperous farms of classical antiquity disappeared. Slowly, after AD1000, conditions improved, first around the great monasteries and then in the expanding cities. The rise of a prosperous mercantile class resulted in the construction of large town houses and in due time country manors. Comparatively peaceful conditions brought some improvement in housing for farm serfs, but the living conditions of the poor town-dweller continued, on the whole, to be miserable. By the end of the Middle Ages the concept of the palace had evolved from the idea of the grand town house. These palaces were elaborate dwellings for ranking ecclesia stics, merchant princes, or ruling families; they might occupy a whole block and contain, in addition to ceremonial and private apartments, quarters for large numbers of retainers and hangers-on. V. From the Renaissance to the 19th CenturyPrint section The palace was perfected during the Renaissance and remains one of architecture's most enduring images, a dignified, large-scale city element that has been adapted and repeated ever since. Palaces were first built in Florence, Italy, and then throughout the Western world. In France... ...ouses that broke with historical architectural styles were slow to be accepted. As early as 1889 the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright built a house embodying new concepts of spatial flow from one room to another. He and others, both in Europe and in the United States, soon moved toward a domestic architectural style of metric forms and simplified surfaces largely free of decoration. Contemporary changes in painting and sculpture were allied to this movement, and by the 1920s modern architecture, though by no means universally accepted, had arrived. Glass, steel, and concrete reinforced with steel gave architects many new design options, and by the mid-20th century the modern house was commonplace. Glass boxes, freely curving styles, and stark, austere geometric forms were all possible; but at the same time traditional styles persisted, and in the U.S. many homeowners found a more or less standard, one-floor, two- or three-bedroom ranch house satisfactory. VIII. Houses of the Far EastPrint section House types in India vary greatly according to region, climate, and local tradition. The villages have courtyard houses as well as simple, single-volume dwellings; in the cities,

Relflection Paper on Interpreter as an Gatekeeper in Medical Discourse

Reflection Paper of Critiquing Translating and Interpreting Presentation Name: Rizqi Fauziah Std Number: 0807532 Class: 7B The Interpreter as Institutional Gatekeeper: The Social-Linguistic Role of Interpreters in Spanish-English Medical Discourse This reflection essay will discuss the written report of the group presentation on chapter entitled The Interpreter as Institutional Gatekeeper: The Social-Linguistic Role of Interpreters in Spanish-English Medical Discourse written by Brad Davidson. This will include how to build group discussion, the material presented, class discussion, and the conclusion. The data are taken from the work of Baker (2010). A couple weeks before the presentation was held, the group which consists of four members started to discuss the material that will be presented. The discussion was conducted three times meetings. Each member of the group should read all the material before the first meeting was held. In the first meeting, the group divided the material to each member of the group, thus, every member would have more focus on the material given. The second meeting, we discussed our understanding on the each material given, then, we made power point slide presentation. In the last meetings, still, we shared our understanding about the topic and had a rehearsal presentation. This chapter talks about how the interpreter’s role is in medical discourse based on Brad Davidson’s study and detailed analysis entitled The Social-Linguistic Role of Interpreters in Spanish-English Medical Discourse. In the Davidson’s study, there were found examples of the way in which the interpreters tend to align themselves with the institutions and to strengthen institutional voice, often at the expense of the voice of participants (Baker, 2010). In this case, the institutional setting is hospital and participant is the patient. I’m interested in the quotation ‘interpreters are the most powerful people in medical conversation’ which is made by head of interpreting service at a major private U. S. hospital in May 1999. What I understand from this quotation is that the interpreters who have control in the conversation. They are as a key in conversation because they connect the doctor and the patient in order to gain the conversational goals. As mentioned by Davidson (Baker, 2010 p. 154): â€Å"Interpreter acts as he point of negotiation and exchange between the social context inhabited by the physician and the patient† Historically, most analysis has been based on oral model of translation which most analysis of interpretation has focused on monologues as suggested by Davidson in Baker (2010, p. 155). Furthermore, the interpreters are seen as conduits, not conversational participant. In contrast, rece ntly, the interpreters do not only conveying the message, but they shape and, and in some very real sense, create those messages in the name those for whom they speak (Baker, 2010 p. 56). Moreover, the interpreter is always placed in contested are between being provides of a service and being agent of authority and control (Baker,2010 p. 156). The structured interaction between the patients, the physician, and the interpreter is called medical discourse or medical interview. Davidson’s study of medical discourse was conducted at General Medicine Clinic (GMC) of Riverview General Hospital in spring and summer 1996. According to Davidson in Baker (2010), the data collection concerned on the way in which the hospital-based interpreters were used in clinic, the interpreter’s presence in helping to shape the course and content of interview and the way interpreter mediated the clash of goals between the achievement of institutional goals and goals held by the patient. The data are collected from observation of over 100 patients’ visits, 50 of which were observed and audio taped. The research questions that are asked by Davidson are: 1. What the role of interpreter within the goal-oriented? . What is the interpretative habit? And how does one engage in the practice of interpreting? 3. If the interpreters are not neutral, do they challenge the authority of the physician judge, and act as patients’ ambassadors, or do they reinforce the institutional authority of physician? During the study, Davidson said that the scarcity of time become the factor of the patient in medical intervie w. It is because the patients who used interpreter often were left alone for sometimes an hour while they waited for the interpreter to arrive (Baker, 2010 p. 60). Moreover, Davidson said that the interpreters are possibly conducted the interview with the patient before the physician arrived (Baker, 2010 p. 160). They took a charge of physician’s position by asking questions the patient about the illness before they convey it to the physician. This affects the process of elaborating a Chief Complaint from patient which becomes shorter. Besides, the interpreters also would occasionally go so far as to conduct the initial portions of the interviews itself. According to Davidson in Baker (2010, p. 64) the interferences of interpreter in medical interview create harms for the physician. For instance, in case of English-speaking physician who had a Spanish speaking patient, most the direct questions that directed to physician were answered by the interpreter. This treatment is app arently an attempt to keep the patient ‘on track’, but this makes a threat to the physician’s authority within the interview. This habitual action done by the interpreter might be viewed as a move to insulate the physician. Keeping the patient on track also led a loss of patient complaint in conversational. It affects that patient’s complain will left undiagnosed and untreated. In contrast with the patient without interpreting, their complaints were diagnosed and treated because there was no interference from the interpreter. In this case, the interpreter sometimes edited the wholesale complaint of the patient in order to keep the interview ‘on track’ and sometimes to protect the physician and the institution of hospital. However, this makes un-tracks the achievement of the institutional goals (diagnosis and treatment) of interview itself. After explaining the material, 3 classmates asked some questions. The first question came from Riska K. R who asked ‘ is there any justification for medical interpretation to have a tendency to support a medical institution instead of the patient? ’ we agreed to answer that yes, there is justification in which the interpreter supports the medical institution. It is because the role of the interpreter itself is as an institutional gatekeeper. The interpreters are paid by the hospital (the institution), thus, they support the institutional. The second question came from Rendriawan who asked ‘please explain the sentence â€Å"the interpreter also interpret selectively, and appear to do so in a patterned (non-random) fashioned† ‘. Then, we answered that the interpreter should filter what utterance that is told by the patient before we convey it to the doctor in order to protect the physician and the institution of the hospital from the critique of the patient. The last question is from Lalitya P who asked ‘are there any differences of the role of interpreter in colonial and post colonial codition? How the interpreter reacts in the interview? ’. we agreed to answer that yes, we think that there is difference in colonial and post colonial condition. For example in post colonial the interpreter is always placed in contested are between being providers of a service and being agents of authority and control. To sum up, the answer of research question has been answered in this study. The interpreters have a role as ‘advocates’ or ‘ambassadors’ for interpreted patients as suggested by Davidson (Baker, 2010 p. 172). Besides, they also act as informational gatekeepers who keep the interview ‘on track’ and the physician on schedule. The interpreters who attempt to keep the interview ‘on track’, sometimes, lead the habitual actions such as answering the patient’s questions which are directed to the doctor, editing the wholesale patient complaint in order to protect the institutional of the hospital, and etc. According to Davison in Baker (2010, p. 73) it can be outlined that interpreters are not, and cannot be ‘neutral’ machines of linguistic conversion. Moreover, it is because they are faced with the reality that linguistic systems are not ‘the same’ in how they convey information contextually. Besides, they are themselves also social agents and participant in the discourse. Davidson said in his article that the interpreters and the physicians at Riverview have to have training (Baker, 2010, p. 173) Bibliography Baker, M. (2010). Critical Reading In Traslation Studies . New York: Routledge. ‘

Design Thinking and Innovation at Ideo

IDEO QUESTIONS. Juan Pallares 1. What is the role of prototyping in IDEO? Is it central to their process? For IDEO, prototyping is the core of its design process, and how they use it is one of their competitive advantages. IDEO believes in explaining anyt design idea with prototypes, which helps people to focus on the same idea, or to find improvements of a single design easily. Prototyping is also a better way to show the customers the design your are thinking of, and helps them to get involved with the design process, aligning both designers and customers mindsets. . Should IDEO accept the Visor Project? Why? Like everything, it depends of the needs of IDEO. Initially I would recommend not accepting the project, unless they were in need of cash. Visor project would require a design process much more tight that the one employed in IDEO, with almost no barriers to creativity and the free flow of ideas. The time and cost requirements would imply designers and brainstormers would have their ideas enclosed to the requirements, that would â€Å"orient† the ideas in one specific direction since the beginning.In a design process, that could kill the project. 3. In case they will accept, what challenges and risks are they facing? First of all, in a company where communication of ideas is key (show and tell is an example), having a secret project would reduce the source of ideas just to the ones involved in it, reducing the possible outcomes. More over, in a company where people involved in a project are the ones that are most passionate about it, forcing some people to work in a project without telling to anyone else reduce the motivation of the design team.Another challenge is the lack of testers. One of the success of the Palm V was the marketing research done by Boyle, which opened their â€Å"designers minds† to different users with broader needs, thus avoiding insider`s egocentric point of view. This would not be possible in this secret project, unl ess considering an outside marketing company for developping the research, with the increase in costs associated. Related to the project specifications, one of the big challenges would be to work with only existing and tested technologies.IDEO design process starts with product designers and engineers, and after the product is designed on its basic form, costs are considered. Working with actual technologies would reduce the â€Å"innovative† spirit of the team, and could possible lead to just a product make-up, a product similar to the existing ones but with a different shape. And the innovative image of IDEO could be damaged because of that. 4. In which cases will you outsource the product development of your company? Only in two situations I would outsource the product development of my company. First, if product design is not a crucial aspect of my industry.If I? m a manufacturer of golf balls, even if there is always room for competitive advantage through innovation, it is not a crucial fact for everyday business. Second, if the company which I will outsource my product development to, is known for its quality in terms of design/ innovation. In this case outsourcing would be a perfect strategy for my company, leaving the design to people with more expertise and recognition (it can be also a marketing tactic). Always of course, with constant monitoring of the aligning between the design and the values/image of my company.

Definition of a Chemical Period - Chemistry Glossary

Definition of a Chemical Period - Chemistry Glossary In chemistry, the term period refers to a horizontal row of the periodic table. Elements in the same period all have the same highest unexcited electron energy level or same ground state energy level. In other words, each atom has the same number of electron shells. As you more down the periodic table, there are more elements per element period because the number of electrons allowed per energy sublevel increases. The seven periods of the periodic table contain naturally-occurring elements. All elements in period 7 are radioactive. Period 8 consists solely of yet-to-be-discovered synthetic elements. Period 8 is not found on the typical periodic table, but does show up on extended periodic tables. Significance of Periods on Periodic Table Element groups and periods organize the elements of the periodic table according to periodic law. This structure categorizes elements according to their similar chemical and physical properties. As you move across a period, an atom of each element gains an electron and displays less metallic character than the element before it. So, elements within a period on the left side of the table are highly reactive and metallic, while elements on the right side are highly reactive and nonmetallic until you reach the final group. The halogens are nonmetallic and not reactive. The s-block and p-block elements within the same period tend to have different properties. However, d-block elements within a period are more similar to each other.

7 Types of Hyphenation That May Seem Wrong But Arent

7 Types of Hyphenation That May Seem Wrong But Arent 7 Types of Hyphenation That May Seem Wrong But Aren’t 7 Types of Hyphenation That May Seem Wrong But Aren’t By Mark Nichol You know, of course, that a phrasal adjective, or compound modifier two or more words that combine to modify a noun are usually hyphenated to signal that link (only before the noun, however, and not if, as with â€Å"income tax† and many other permanent compounds, the open compound is in the dictionary). Even though the relationship often seems obvious, this is language law. Phrasal adjectives, however, aren’t the only grammatical category in which hyphens are required even though they don’t seem necessary. Here are seven others: 1. Job Titles Some job titles, such as secretary-treasurer, are hyphenated to signal the combined roles. Others, such as secretary-general (the title of the head of the United Nations), retain this form as a holdover from a time when hyphenation of compound nouns was rampant, though technically, general is an adjective modifying secretary (as in the example of president-elect, below). However, this usage is an anomaly: similar terms like â€Å"attorney general† and â€Å"major general† are open. Note that the adjective+noun combination â€Å"vice president† is open, but some other such compounds are hyphenated (vice-consul) or closed (viceroy). 2. Compound Nouns A handful of noun compounds stubbornly resist the usual usage evolution of open, hyphenated, and closed (or sometimes open to closed without the hyphenation middleman): The ones I can think of are by-product, life-form, light-year, and mind-set. Many people treat these artificially preserved throwbacks incorrectly the first and last compounds are often erroneously closed, and the hyphen is frequently omitted and a letter space inserted in the second and third ones and why shouldn’t they? Omitting hyphens and treating these words as open or closed compounds doesn’t violate any scientific laws. However, until dictionaries respond to the attainment of a tipping point where most people are writing such terms incorrectly, these words should be hyphenated. (Light-year may someday be closed, but because the first element of life-form ends with a vowel, it will likely remain hyphenated. On that note, the disinclination to close this type of open compounds affects other terms, such as shape-shifter.) 3. Compound Verbs When you use two words together to refer to a single action, such as referring to air-conditioning a house, jump-starting a car, or mass-producing a product, a seemingly extraneous hyphen is required. (The same is true regardless of the form of the verb: air-condition and air-conditioned but â€Å"air conditioning.†) 4. Fractions Hyphens in compound numbers such as twenty-one seem natural, but hyphenation of fractions (one-third) is counterintuitive. How many thirds? One. One is an adjective that modifies the noun third, so why hyphenate them unless they’re linking to modify a noun (â€Å"one-third full†)? I don’t make the rules; I just follow them. 5. Homographs Sometimes, prefixes you’d expect to be closed up to the root word are hyphenated, because closing them up would cause confusion with identical words with distinct meanings. Examples include resign/re-sign, resent/re-sent, and recreation/re-creation. (A rare case of a similar pair with a prefix other than re- is unionized/un-ionized.) 6. Prefixes Generally, permanent compounds beginning with the prefixes alls include all-around, ex-governor, and self-control. (Selfish and selfless, as well as the unfortunate unselfconscious, are exceptions with self-.) Some words beginning with co- (co-chair) and pro- (pro-choice) just look wrong closed up and are anomalously hyphenated, as are words in which the last letter of the prefix and the first letter of the root word are the same: anti-intellectual, co-owner, ultra-aggressive. Words beginning with non- are almost always closed, but occasionally they’re seen hyphenated and for good reason: â€Å"Nonlife-threatening injury† is an awkward treatment. Insert a hyphen when the prefix precedes a hyphenated phrasal adjective. And why, if we refer to the early or late part of an era, such as a decade or a century (â€Å"early 1920s,† â€Å"late nineteenth century†), no hyphen is used, but a reference to the middle of a period requires one, as in mid-1970s or mid-century? Consistency would call for referring to â€Å"the middle 1970s† or â€Å"the middle of the century,† but mid- has replaced this usage. 7. Suffixes Constructions such as president-elect may seem to be unnecessarily burdened with a hyphen, but they’re equivalent to modified phrases such as daughter-in-law. (Note, though, that such constructions do not include a hyphen when the first element is an open compound, such as in â€Å"vice president elect.†) However, â€Å"editor in chief† shed its connective tissue long go without difficulty (though some people still incorrectly hyphenate the phrase), so similar constructions may follow suit. For now, though, go with the flow. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How to Structure A Story: The Eight-Point Arc3 Cases of Complicated Hyphenation7 Other Types of Pronouns

7 key resume tips from hiring managers

7 key resume tips from hiring managers Putting together a strong resume can be tricky. No one knows this better than hiring managers, who see job candidates make a lot of the same mistakes on their resumes over and over again. So who better to let you know what errors to avoid when making your own resume than the people in charge of hiring? Here are 7 tips from hiring managers that will ensure you avoid the biggest resume blunders. 1. Tell the truth.There’s an old assumption that everyone lies a little on their resumes. Don’t buy into that clichà ©, and rise above this silly misstep that’s sure to catch up with you. Lying about your experience on your resume can land you in a job that simply is not for you†¦or worse yet, lead to quite a bit of embarrassment if the hiring manager uncovers a lie. Don’t end up embarrassed or out of your depth because you stretched the truth on your resume.2. Take care of the details.Hiring managers pay close attention to the tiny little parts of every resume section. Misspellings or grammatical errors on a resume are red flags that a potential employee might also make sloppy mistakes on the job. Be equally careful when composing emails when following up on your resume and in your cover letter.3. Skip the objective.The objective is a classic resume element. It’s where you state your ultimate career goal. The thing is, your career goal will often have absolutely nothing to do with the particular position for which you’re actually applying. The resume space you set aside for your objective can be put to better use, so it’s probably wisest just to eliminate it altogether. It’s a bit outdated and no hiring manager is  ever going to miss it or knock you down a peg if it’s not there.4. Get (and list) relevant experience.Being well-educated may be crucial to get a particular job, but hiring managers also want to know that you’ve actually held down a job before. Recent graduates often make the error o f thinking their educational accomplishments are enough, and fail to include work experience on their resumes. Never leave out work experience, even if you have to list menial part-time jobs, unpaid internships, or volunteer work on your resume.5. Don’t forget your accomplishments.Hiring managers want to know where you’ve worked in the past, but that’s not enough to provide a clear picture of what you’ve accomplished. So for each work experience entry, also note what you accomplished or how you were outstanding in that particular job. Be brief, but specific.6. Don’t trumpet your strengths.Are you a strong leader or a â€Å"people person?† Good for you! But save descriptions of yourself for your interview. There shouldn’t be anything but your work experience, accomplishments, degrees earned, and contact information on your resume.7. Don’t forget the cover letter.Okay, so you have a ton of relevant work experience, you’ve earned a higher education degree, and your accomplishments are many and marvelous. Your resume is impeccable. But simply shipping off a resume in response to a job opportunity won’t get you the job- no matter how fabulous your resume is. You also need to submit a cover letter. This is where you can allow a bit more of your personality to shine through and explain why your experiences, education, and accomplishments are relevant to the particular job for which you are applying. Treat your cover letter with all the care you put into your resume, avoiding the misspellings, grammar errors, untruths, and other common mistakes that could make you seem like a less-than-ideal candidate.

Would you recommend a new nation adopt a presidential or parliamentary Essay

Would you recommend a new nation adopt a presidential or parliamentary system of government in the early 21st century - Essay Example One of the good consequences of this phenomenon is that people have stopped taking their political systems for granted and have begun to think of the merits and demerits of parliamentary and presidential forms of government. This spirit of questioning can be seen even in fictional representations of the nation that question the validity of the very concept like The Shadow Lines (Ghosh 2000). There are also theorists who disagree with the very idea of difference between these two very different forms of government. For instance, the political thinker Juan J. Linz, in his article, â€Å"Presidential or parliamentary democracy: Does it make a difference?† talks of the differences that do not make a change at the level of the grassroots (1994). The failure of democracies to fulfill the aspirations of people in different nation states is a cause for worry. This does not however, mean that the very idea is dropped. This needs to be the case as a better alternative is unavailable and according to most political thinkers, impossible. The natural status that democracy has been accorded may be the reason for this; however, whether it is parliamentary or presidential democracy that is good for a single nation or all nations is a question that remains unanswered. To propose any one form of government as a one-stop solution would be a mistake. This is primarily a consequence of the fact that every single nation is different from the other and requires different forms of governments. This paper shall look at four countries- the United States of America, the United Kingdom, India and Sri Lanka. These countries represent different social and political landscapes and also different forms of government. While the United States of America follows a presidential form of governance, India and the United Kingdom are followers of the parliamentary form of government. Sri Lanka has been

Urban Sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Urban Sociology - Essay Example In the process, the nature and possible causes of the urban sociological problems that occur in Africa will be discussed followed by examining the severity of constantly increasing population problem and its impact with the local, regional, national and global economy. Prior to the conclusion, recommended ways on how to combat the population growth problem will be tackled. Studying the Africa’s demographics is considered as one of the most controversial case during the twentieth century because of the rapid growth of the African population as well as its urbanization development. (Zuberi et al., 2003) Divided in five major regions known as the North Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, East Africa, and Southern Africa (Think Quest, 2008c), the country is very unique in the sense that it is composed of more than 50 other countries with thousands of different ethnic groups such as the Arabs, Ashanti, Bantu, Berbers, Bushmen, Dinka, Fulani, Ganda, Hamites, Hausa, Hottentot, Kikuyu, Luba, Lunda, Malinke, Moors, Nuer, Pygmies, Semites, Swahili, Tuareg, Xhosa, and Yoruba aside from those that are less known by the local people. (Think Quest, 2008b) (See Table I – Complete List of African Countries, Population, and Internet Users on page ) Africa has a huge population with approximately 955.206,342 as of 2008. (Internet Worlds Stats, 2008) Despite the excessive high number of inhibitants, Africa is also considered as one of the fastest urban developing country. As of 2008, approximately one-third of the total African population lives and work in the cities. (Think Quest, 2008b) As a result of fast paced urbanization and a better economic base in the country, the number of birth and death rates has declined over the years. Aside from having the opportunity for a higher educational, the benefits of driving a car, and an access to worldwide

Methodology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Methodology - Essay Example ancement of a software called sage; the paper was also published again in 198 although it was agreed that the process did not necessarily have to follow the exact procedure as it was initially made. The putting forward of the waterfall model by Winston was as an example of a model that could not work and the term was only used when talking about software development. One of the reasons that I prefer using this model is because the time that is spent in the initial stages of making the model can lead to greater savings in time and money in future (Carlisle, Wilson, Humphries & Hadfield, 2005, p177). For instance a bug that is detected earlier during the design phase of a software will be cheap and will take less time to fix than one that will be detected at later stages in the development of the software. The main idea behind this model is that the much time spent in the first stages of development reduces efforts later. The people behind the making of this process have to make sure that they are more sure and accurate before getting to the following stage they should also assemble all the necessary requirements needed in all the processes before beginning the entire procedure (Navarro & Hoek, 2005, p27). In this model, the members have to make sure that when they start working it is advisable to work thoroughly without any stops this would prevent some of the information getting lost if left unattended, retrieving of this information may not be very easy and may cost a lot of time (Huo, Verner, Zhu & Babar, 2004, p523). If the team or the members are not familiar with the documents ¦, it is advisable to go through them first before starting the entire project. Most of the waterfall model users prefer this method because it is to use and it progresses in such a way that it is easy to understand each phase due to this reason the model has been widely used at the start of the model in writing software engineering text. Big design up and the waterfall model are most

Pro-life and Prochoice campaigns and the ethical dilemmas within them Annotated Bibliography

Pro-life and Prochoice campaigns and the ethical dilemmas within them. - Annotated Bibliography Example For instance, most countries have been involved in many series of debates concerning the issue of abortion, euthanasia, corporate punishment, death punishment, and/or assisted suicide among many others. Lee claims that in more than one case, people end up failing to come to consensus, a situation that leads to lack of conclusive responses, which the whole issue a decision of an individual’s choice. The connotation â€Å"pro-life† that goes hand in hand with â€Å"pro-choice† are general episodes, which seeks to expound whether an individual is willing to carry out a certain agenda commonly, termed as an ethical dilemma. Since this expansion tends to involve the issue of ethics, it is very engulfing and poses serious challenges when it comes into making the final decision. This section talks about the Pro-Life spectrum, which is an issue that seeks to determine people’s thinking towards life especially when abortion is the subject. Under this spectrum, people engage themselves in a series of campaigns where they seek to publicize to everyone including the recently conceived human being has a right to equal live. As such, abortion should be condemned and termed as a crime of the highest order, as it is similar to committing murder (Lee 2).

Tom Monaghan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Tom Monaghan - Assignment Example His is a story of determination and hard work. His success story greatly inspired me and I felt the need to dig deeper to get more inspiration (Soucy & Huber 2006). Peter Drucker was a popular economist who was born in 1909 in Vienna, Australia. He was born and raised in a well cultured family where his father worked as a lawyer and his mother as a doctor. He did his studies in the best schools and completed his undergraduate at the University of Frankfurt in 1931. He left Germany and moved to London. He spent four years in the new country and later moved to the United States where he was finally elevated to U.S citizen status in 1943. Drucker has written over 40 books, most of his books have been recognized internationally owing to the fact that they have been translated into more than 20 languages. He was called the father of management. He was awarded the presidential Medal of Freedom in July 2002 by President George W. Bush in recognition for his great works in the field of management. He died on 11th November 2005 in the state of California (Drucker 2007). Peter Drucker is the father of management and he has excellent knowledge in the field. Retrieving lessons from his famous books would be of great help us to understand the subject more. His life experiences in the field of management can be related to the current experiences we are facing in our world today. His excellent knowledge from the books he has written will help us to tap the goodness he has brought forward in his many books. The knowledge is practical and it is applicable in the day to day activities that take place in our modern world. This famous business author and consultant had so much knowledge which has shaped so many lives in our modern world today; this is very essential in our studies (Drucker 2007). While conducting the research, I have learnt how to work in a team, to delegate tasks and to arrive at a

E-marketing Communications Plan for IBB Assignment

E-marketing Communications Plan for IBB - Assignment Example Hence, if we work through this new channel, it can make our work far faster and better than it used to be. Many Companies have moved away from big advertising expenditures that used to be a huge part of their marketing programs and have instead poured money into less expensive PR/Social Media programs. This digital media enabled the long-term partnership with consumers and also provided cost-effective solutions. Companies switching to new media are the latest trend and respond to the need of the market since most consumers prefer online channels these days. Indeed, online media are gaining popularity and consumers easily trust them. Today, content is created, consumed, commented on, collaborated over and circulated at an ever-accelerating pace through the social media, search engines, and digital content. Companies have to move quickly to identify, learn from and engage in conversations that are related to their brands. They need to communicate using channels preferred by an increasi ngly selective audience. So, it has been decided to launch a full flash digital marketing campaign using different mediums. I will closely work with digital marketing agencies to ensure media relations campaigns dovetail with blogger relations and other social media PR strategies, as well as wider marketing and communications initiatives. We work â€Å"with our clients to identify and track the most influential and relevant industry analysts and work out strategies for engaging with them. â€Å" (http://triercompany.com/services/analyst-relations/) For a new website launch, we will work for reputation management strategies, as well as communications services that meet our goals and objectives. We will take the time to understand our unique culture and challenges, which will help us come up with marketing strategies that will give us ultimate success. We will get the services of those agencies which specialize in helping clients build corporate visibility through high-profile media relations. We will also engage several crisis management experts, experienced in handling communications around a wide range of issues. During a campaign, the nationwide network of highly experienced social media mavens will target both consumers and influences. The services that we will explore include research, a brand category identification, message composition, ID maintenance, campaign development, execution and reporting. Methodology Since the world economy is influenced by globalization processes, the total business environment has dramatically changed of late. Competition is no more limited to a single market place, it has also expanded internationally. The technological advancement today creates competitive advantages in every industry and sector. Importantly, digital marketing is on boom and many businesses are shifting their budget to this new form of marketing. Before working on any report, it is vitally important to do a research. In particular, researchers have to ens ure they understand the topic right, and then they need to gather data and craft it in a fine report, which should be understandable in the context of its target market. In other words, researchers carry out a research and transform the facts that they have obtained in a sequence, so that readers can easily understand the idea and the situation described in the report.  

Tom Monaghan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Tom Monaghan - Assignment Example His is a story of determination and hard work. His success story greatly inspired me and I felt the need to dig deeper to get more inspiration (Soucy & Huber 2006). Peter Drucker was a popular economist who was born in 1909 in Vienna, Australia. He was born and raised in a well cultured family where his father worked as a lawyer and his mother as a doctor. He did his studies in the best schools and completed his undergraduate at the University of Frankfurt in 1931. He left Germany and moved to London. He spent four years in the new country and later moved to the United States where he was finally elevated to U.S citizen status in 1943. Drucker has written over 40 books, most of his books have been recognized internationally owing to the fact that they have been translated into more than 20 languages. He was called the father of management. He was awarded the presidential Medal of Freedom in July 2002 by President George W. Bush in recognition for his great works in the field of management. He died on 11th November 2005 in the state of California (Drucker 2007). Peter Drucker is the father of management and he has excellent knowledge in the field. Retrieving lessons from his famous books would be of great help us to understand the subject more. His life experiences in the field of management can be related to the current experiences we are facing in our world today. His excellent knowledge from the books he has written will help us to tap the goodness he has brought forward in his many books. The knowledge is practical and it is applicable in the day to day activities that take place in our modern world. This famous business author and consultant had so much knowledge which has shaped so many lives in our modern world today; this is very essential in our studies (Drucker 2007). While conducting the research, I have learnt how to work in a team, to delegate tasks and to arrive at a

Banking and Finance Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Banking and Finance Law - Essay Example Because of the high profit margins and the resultant stiff competition, the financial services sector has been marred with a lot of confusions and complex regulatory and operational issues. In the United Kingdom, like in many other developed and developing countries, the financial services sector is quite a sophisticated one, making many a people to develop defensive attitudes towards it. Fortunately, the UK government has established several consumer-oriented policies, strategies, laws and agencies to help in regulating the financial services sector. These regulatory agencies and laws not only provide free and independent complaint services to the public and financial firms but also amicably solve grievances among financial institutions and their consumers (Francis, 2001). It has not been enough to merely enact financial laws; agencies such as the defunct FSA and the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) were established to ensure that consumer-protection laws are adhered to by the financial institutions, more so regarding the protection of consumer savings and investments by authorized organisations (Xydias, 2007). This paper explores the structure and the methods of financial services regulation currently used in the United Kingdom and the extent to which these methods and the structure have been successful in achieving their objectives. Financial Services Regulation in the UK For financial accountability, reliability and the credibility of financial services, countries have established various organisations and implemented a number of methods by which the players in the financial and banking sectors are regulated (Andenas & Chiu, 2011). In the United Kingdom, the financial and banking sectors are regulated by various methods for several reasons. That is, there are certain objectives for which the UK government has established financial regulation structures, organisations and policies. Financial regulations refer to the guidelines and supervisory activities to which financial and banking institutions and individual professionals are subjected in the execution of their operations (Federal Trade Commission, 2007). These regulations give guidelines, restrictions, aims/objectives and integrity or accountability requirements and expectations for financial institutions and professionals as well (Davies & Green, 2008). In many a country, both governmental and non-governmental agencies are involved in the regulation and control of financial and banking sectors. Nonetheless, the objectives of these regulations and the concerned organisations are quite similar. In the UK for instance, financial regulations seek to enforce all the laws applicable to financial operations in a country. Second, financial regulations help in the maintaining of the public’s and investors’ confidence in UK’s financial system besides reducing the financial institutions’ violation of financial laws. The other activities checked by financial regulation mechanisms are market manipulation activities such as insider trading and money laundering (Gonzalo, 2010). Importantly, financial regulation protects clients through processes such as the investigation of customer/public complaints. In addition to the above objectives, financial regulation helps in ensuring that only legal and competent investors are

Examining The Impact Of Mentoring Desistance Among Prisoners Criminology Essay

Examining The Impact Of Mentoring Desistance Among Prisoners Criminology Essay This chapter seeks to situate the importance of the impact of mentoring in promoting desistance among ex-prisoners, and why effective interventions such as mentoring which aim to reduce reoffending are crucial for the wellbeing of society and should therefore be explored in order to discover which elements of such interventions do or do not promote desistance. A critical review of current relevant literature in the field of mentoring and how it impacts on desistance will be reported on and hopefully a gap within that literature will be identified which this research will attempt to address. The Problem of Reoffending The Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) has provided some of the most overwhelming statistics regarding reoffending ex-prisoners and has declared that Prison sentences are not succeeding in turning the majority of offenders away from crime (2002: 5). Fifty eight per cent of prisoners released in 1997 were reconvicted of another offence within 2 years of being released from custody, and of those, thirty six per cent also went on to receive an additional prison sentence (SEU, 2002: 5). Even though the Ministry of Justice (2010: 2) declare that the proportion of ex-prisoners reoffending is actually falling (noting a decrease in re-offences from forty three per cent in the year 2000 cohort, to forty one per cent in the 2008 equivalent), and The Home Office recent Five Year strategy for protecting the Public and reducing reoffending (2006: 9) claims Crime is going down. The risk of being a victim of crime is at the lowest level in 24 years, reoffending rates still remain persistently high. In conjunction with punishment, the reform of offenders is crucial to reducing reoffending and delivering justice to the public. But when these figures quoted from the above sources are combined they make for shocking reading and depending on how they are interpreted can imply that current rehabilitative interventions which aim to reform offenders and reduce reoffending, are thus failing. This raises questions about how current rehabilitative interventions can be improved to achieve their aims, or if new interventions, such as mentoring for example, should be researched further, and used more widely (and possibly in place of current strategies) if they show positive effects. Rehabilitation Criminal Justice theories of rehabilitation broadly take the stance that crime is best prevented by working directly with offenders to address the personal, social and economic factors most closely associated with their offending behaviour, which Canton and Edie term as their criminogenic needs (2008: 93). Millie and Erol (2006: 2) identify some examples of criminogenic needs as, substance misuse, poor educational and vocational skills, poor cognitive and interpersonal skills, and antisocial attitudes. By focussing on these risk factors it is more likely that an offender will successfully rehabilitate (Millie and Erol, 2006: 2) and desist from committing further crime. At the beginning of the 20th century, penal policy was strongly influenced by a theory of rehabilitation. Unfortunately rehabilitative strategies failed to live up to the claim that they would reduce recidivism according to Martinson, resulting in his gloomy conclusion that nothing works (1974) and provoking a loss of confidence in the rehabilitative ideal during the 1970s and 80s in Britain (Hollin, 2005: 7). However, through a series of meta-analytic reviews which developed the What Works agenda, and provided a compelling case against Martinsons (1974) declaration, Britain witnessed a remarkable resurgence of the rehabilitative ideal in the 1990s (Hollin, 2005: 8). The general message of the meta-analyses that took place during the What Works movement was that when rehabilitative treatment was used with offenders it could have small but noteworthy effects in terms of reducing reoffending. McGuire and Priestly (1995) outline their interpretation of these key areas through a set of guiding principles, concluding that if followed they could lead to greater effectiveness in program content and delivery. These guiding principles are; Risk Classification- effective risk assessment is said to be required for the accurate matching of the clients with the level of delivery of certain rehabilitative programmes Focus on criminogenic needs Responsivity- matching styles of learning between worker and service user Community based interventions Treatment modality- a combination of skills-orientated, cognitive behavioural and other methods Programme integrity- that ensures programme aims are reflected in the methods used (McGuire and Priestly, 1995). However, it would be wrong to assume that the case for treatment was established as it is difficult to derive the exact magnitude of this overall treatment effect (Hollin, 1999: 3) from the meta-analyses, and perhaps more significantly because not all interventions that were researched had the same effect on recidivism, making the findings unreliable to a certain degree. Like all research methods, the meta-analysis process also has limitations, with Sharpe (1997) noting that; mixing dissimilar studies into the analysis and only using published research (of which some might have involved poorly designed and conducted original studies), results in meaningless findings (cited in Hollin, 1999: 7). This research will attempt to overcome some of the ambiguities that arose from the findings of the What Works era that although provided evidence of what does work with offenders in tackling reoffending generally, provided little in-depth and substantial evidence regarding what aspects of certain programmes (such as mentoring) promoted desistance among offenders and will seek evidence of this from service users themselves who have not traditionally been asked to comment on the service they receive (Ford et al, 1997). Resettlement Another process which aims to reduce the likelihood of prisoners reoffending upon release into the community is known as resettlement which although does hold out hope for the rehabilitation of offenders, focuses most of its attention on the pressing practical problems faced by many ex-prisoners, which if solved or at least significantly improved can go some way to reducing the likelihood of reoffending. The charity User Voice which draws on insights from offenders in order to develop strategies to reduce reoffending (User Voice, n.d) highlighted in its report The User Voice of the criminal justice system that gaining treatment, accommodation and work are key factors in the journey toward successful resettlement (2008: 13). Likewise a report from the Home Office (Lewis et al, 2003: 8-9) which evaluated the findings from 7 pathfinder programmes placed an emphasis on providing a co-ordinated approach to practical resettlement problems and recommended that the gaps it identified in provision of services needed to facilitate reintegration of offenders prompt a need for; Improved partnership working with Employment Services, Benefits Agencies, local authorities and relevant voluntary/private sector agencies; and access to a wider range of suitable housing, among others. Recent legislation and policy has attempted to combine ideas from theories of Rehabilitation and Resettlement and recommendations from reports such as those detailed in order to combat the problem of reoffending through various new strategies and most importantly through the creation of the National Offender Management Service. This has generally meant increased levels of alternative interventions being used in criminal justice in order to reduce reoffending, such as mentoring. Current Policy The Governments Reducing Reoffending National Action Plan (Home Office, 2004) translated the Social Exclusion Units recommendations most specifically (2002) into policy, with its core focus on the resettlement of prisoners after release. This National Action Plan required the production of Reducing Re-offending Strategies and linking Action Plans for the delivery of key services which were divided into seven separate pathways including; accommodation, education, training and employment (ETE), mental and physical health; drugs and alcohol; finance, benefit and debt; children and families of offenders; and attitudes thinking and behaviour (Maguire and Raynor, 2006: 4). The delivery of these services enacted by the Home Office (2004) now takes place in a dramatically different organisational framework after the creation of NOMS which brought Probation and Prison under one management system and most importantly for purposes of rehabilitation and resettlement introduced end to end offender management, meaning an offender would now be under the supervision of one manager throughout the whole of their sentence. This new concept of end to end offender management implies the close involvement of partner agencies in service planning and provision (Maguire and Raynor, 2006: 5), and is an important move for third sector organisations such as mentoring projects, who are now increasingly seen to play an influential role in the resettlement of ex-prisoners and reducing reoffending. This optimism for third sector organisations is supported by the Ministry of Justice in reports such as Working with the third sector to reduce reoffending: securing effective partne rships 2008-2011 (2007) and by NOMs in its consultation paper Volunteers Can: Towards a volunteering strategy to reduce re-offending (2007). This newly found optimism for third sector organisations to be able to improve the chances of successful rehabilitation and resettlement thus reducing the likelihood of reoffending, has naturally lead to an increase in the prevalence and use of such organisations including mentoring projects, as part of criminal justice interventions. The Rise of Mentoring Joliffe and Farrington (2007: 2) note that mentoring is used in the criminal justice context to increase the life successes of individuals who are at risk of reoffending by providing direct practical assistance (for e.g. filling out housing applications, assisting in searching for employment) and indirect support (for e.g. by acting as a positive role model). By providing individuals with both of these forms of support, mentoring aims to assist in reducing reoffending and increase positive life outcomes (Joliffe and Farrington, 2007: 10). For the purpose of their systematic review Tolan et al identify the following 4 central characteristics of mentoring; Interaction of two individuals over an extended period of time. Inequality of experience or power between the mentor and the mentee (recipient) with the mentee possessing a greater share. The mentee is in a position to imitate and benefit from the knowledge, skill, ability, or experience of the mentor. The absence of the role inequality that typifies other helping relationships and is marked by professional training, certification, or predetermined status differences such as parent-child or teacher-student relationships (Tolan et al, 2008: 6). Mentoring is a relatively new concept to the UK, especially in the field of criminal justice. It is identified by Newburn and Shiner that mentoring originated as a formal response to social exclusion and social welfare problems in the US (2006: 1), with one of the earliest mentoring programmes being identified as the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) which was established in 1904. The Big Brothers/Big Sisters programme has since expanded rapidly in the US and is used as a template by other mentoring organisations with similar visions elsewhere in the World including the UK (Big Brothers Big Sisters, n.d) through ventures such as The Dalston Youth Project (DYP) and Big Brothers Big Sisters UK (Newburn and Shiner, 2006: 2). Although, despite its increasing popularity mentoring continues to be associated with a number of difficulties. Defining mentoring becomes difficult due to the vast set of practises it can cover including one or all of the following; coaching, facilitating, counselling, befriending, tutoring, teaching, role-modelling, buddying or life-styling (Phillip, 1999; Clutterbuck, 2002). It is these definitional problems combined with the contemporary nature of the intervention that creates further difficulty in assessing the value of mentoring, which is why there is little empirical research evaluating its impact, particularly concerning how or why it is or is not of benefit in promoting desistance (i.e. what aspects of mentoring impact on desistance) and not simply does it reduce recidivism. The Effectiveness of Mentoring Most evaluations of mentoring schemes have originated from the US and report generally favourable findings in relation to reducing reoffending. For example, Becker (1994) studied delinquent youths who were involved in the Partners Inc. Mentoring programme and reported a 65-75% reduction in recidivism. In Joliffe and Farringtons rapid evidence assessment (2007) 18 studies were analysed in order to assess how successful mentoring is in reducing reoffending, with 7 of these showing a statistically significant positive impact on reoffending, demonstrating a 4 to 11 per cent reduction of subsequent offending for those involved in these mentoring schemes. It was noted though that this result was driven primarily by those studies with lower methodological value. The best studies that were designed to provide the most accurate assessment of the impact of mentoring actually suggested that mentoring did not cause a statistically significant reduction in reoffending. It was also noted that due to the restricted time-period that their study had to be completed in, it was unrealistic to be able to include unpublished studies, difficult to obtain materials and foreign language studies. This can reduce confidence in the findings and also results in publication biases due to there being a greater tendency for statistically significant findings to be published over studies that show non-statistically significant findings. However, there are other advantages to mentoring, which may impact on reducing reoffending but which cannot be directly measured (For e.g. improving chances of gaining employment). Most research into mentoring appears to focus significantly on quantitative measures of success rather than qualitative approaches, which might provide a better measure of its benefits. For example when Newburn and Shiner (2006) conducted a study of the Mentoring Plus scheme they did not find it impacted successfully on reducing re-offending per se, but they did find the impact of mentoring was strongest in relation to engagement with education, training and employment (a key pathway to aid reducing reoffending). But similarly to some other studies, they took a cautious approach in their conclusion of their evaluation by stating that mentoring faces an uncertain future (2006: 17) but it has real potential (2006: 16). Clancy and colleagues (2006) have associated through the gate work with lower reconviction rates due to the mentor having already established a positive relationship with the mentee in custody and this being continued after release ( See also; Hudson et al, 2007). This is supported by Hudson et al (2007) who highlight mentoring schemes as a promising strategy to assist ex-prisoners in settling in at their initial accommodation and assisting their progress afterwards. The structure of mentoring can also affect the success of mentoring schemes. Joliffe and Farrington (2007) found that the mentoring programmes that were most successful in reducing reoffending were those where the mentee and mentor met at least once a week and spent longer periods of time together when they met. St James-Roberts et al (2005) also identified that programmes lasting over ten months, including 15 meetings on average, and had a steering group, were recognised as most successful. They found that the characteristics of the mentee also had effects on outcomes too, reporting that mentees who were younger, had a lack of offending history and were female were most successful. Joliffe and Farrington (2007) noted that when mentoring occurred as part of a multi-modal programme, with a larger number of interventions involved, these programmes tended to be more successful in reducing reoffending. Pathfinder studies (Lewis et al, 2007) also provide support for the growth of interventions based around a combination of cognitive-motivational work and facilitating offenders access to service agencies. Other benefits of mentoring on reducing reoffending have come from Clancy et al who completed a review of the Transitional Support Scheme (TSS) which provided mentoring for offenders in Wales. The study concluded that the scheme produced statistically significant changes in offenders attitudes to crime and that offenders found assistance completing forms and managing finances the most useful aspect of mentoring (2004, as cited in Ministry of Justice, 2008: 10-12). Furthermore another vital factor in the effectiveness of the scheme was that the mentors were understood by offenders to be detached from the criminal justice system, therefore mentees were more likely to participate in a relationship with them. The most recent systematic review of mentoring schemes has come from the Campbell Collaboration in the US (Tolan et al, 2008). The study evaluated the effects of the mentoring interventions included in their study on delinquency outcomes for youthand key associated outcomes (2008: 5). The Review concluded that when the 39 included studies were analysed for outcomes measuring delinquency or closely related outcomes it suggests mentoring for high-risk youth has a modest positive effect for delinquency, aggression, drug use, and achievement (2008: 8). They noted that effects were strongest when emotional support was a key process in mentoring interventions (2008: 8). However, Tolan et al are wary not to make any sweeping conclusions about what elements of mentoring make it an effective intervention by stating that the valuable features and most promising approaches cannot be stated with any certainty, putting this down to the remarkable lack of description of key features or basic progr am organization in the studies included in their review (2008: 8). They finally call for more careful design and testing of mentoring effects to provide the needed specificity to guide effective practice of this popular approach (2008: 5). On the whole mentoring seems to be a promising intervention and the elements which have been identified as making it effective, have been highlighted, but there is still a lack of research into mentoring effectiveness from the UK, especially concerning its impact on adult rather than young offenders or at risk individuals. This implies that most mentoring projects in the UK have begun due to a leap of faith. Most studies that have been published into the effectiveness of mentoring so far have also been overly concerned with quantitative analyses of mentoring with the majority only being interested in reconviction rates, resulting in them only been able to provide some general and tentative statements about what specific elements of mentoring might impact on its ability to reduce reoffending. This ignores the possibility that qualitative approaches may provide a better measure of the benefits of mentoring, as they are able to assess the numerous indirect impacts mentoring may have on desistance in the long run. There is also a lack of studies focussing on the thoughts of the service user and as it is ultimately only the offenders themselves who can stop reoffending it is vital that their views on how this should be done are taken into account, this is reinforced by Matzas method of appreciation in which aim is to comprehend and illuminate the subjects view and to interpret the world as it appears to him (1969: 25). The Process of Desistance Farrall and Calverley describe desistance as the process of ending a period of involvement in offending behaviour (2006: 1). This definition recognises that the study of desistance is not primarily concerned with whether an individual has committed further crime or not but rather the journey towards becoming a non-offender. Maruna (1998) supports this by claiming desistance is not an event but a process (as cited in Farrall, 2002: 65) and Laub et al define desistance as a gradual movement away from criminal offending (1998: 3). It has been widely agreed that one of the most important influences on future offending patterns is a change in offenders thinking as well as their circumstances. For example Zamble and Quinsey who concluded from their study of released male prisoners in Ontario that habitual offending is best predicted by looking at an individuals acquired ways of reacting to common situations (1997: 147) and that pessimistic or negative reactions to common problems for many prisoners can lead them to give up on attempts to lead a crime free life. Similarly Marunas (2000) interview-based study lead to him conclude that what he terms different kinds of narrative (or the personal understandings or accounts of behaviours and situations) can either support desistance or continued offending. Maruna found that a key factor in narratives that promote desistance was the belief that the offender had begun to take control of their life, where as in comparison those still offending seemed to have little vision of what the future might hold, [but] desisting interviewees had a plan and were optimistic they could make it work (2000: 147). DiClemente and Prochaska (1982) identify a broad cycle of change with specific stages; Pre-contemplation Contemplation Action Maintenance, which people might pass through when attempting to change any previously habitual behaviours. A persons readiness can be affected by a range of factors which might include among others; major life events, age, physical and social circumstances and social bonds (Maguire and Raynor, 2006: 24). Burnett instead refers to a zig-zag path of desistance which involves reversals of decision, indecision, compromise and lapses, and suggests that if interventions are to facilitate the desistance process this ubiquitous state of ambivalence should be fully acknowledged and addressed (2004: 169). Another element which many writers agree is a central component in the process of desistance is the generation and maintenance of motivation (See Maruna, 2000; Maruna and Immarigeon, 2004). But however strong a persons narrative or motivation to change is, this can be seriously frustrated by a range of social problems, such as persistent accommodation problems or barriers to employment (Burnett and Maruna, 2004: 8). As people undergo a process of change and begin to desist they will also need new skills and capacities appropriate to their new lifestyle, and access to opportunities to use them (Maguire and Raynor, 2006: 8). They will need to acquire new social and human capital, with human capital referring to the skills and knowledge that an individual possesses and social capital being conceptualised as socially structured relationships between individuals, in families and in aggregations of individuals in neighbourhoods, churches, schools and so on (Hagan and McCarthy, 2007 as cited in Farrall, 2004: 60). It is suggested that if ex-offenders do not have access to these new appropriate social capital and human capital then the process of desistance could be slowed down (Farrall, 2004) which the use of a volunteer mentor would hopefully overcome. Maguire and Raynor (2006) suggest that many of the observations described above from desistance theorists have implications for interventions aiming to reduce recidivism and the following points should be taken into account by those involved in the resettlement of offenders, such as mentors or probation officers, in order to foster change and reduce reoffending; There is a need to respond to offenders individual needs rather than applying a one size fits all series of interventions. It is important that the offender takes the lead in the process of change or that it is understood as a shared effort between the offender and one attempting to foster change in them. Emphatic support required in order to maintain the motivation of the offender. It is imperative that assistance is given in taking advantage of opportunities to improve the lifestyle of the offender and in attaining relevant skills for them. Motivation of the offender can be maintained by overcoming social and practical problems. It should be expected that relapses will occur, whereby the offender falls back into previous patterns of behaviour, but this should not act as an indication that desistance has failed (Maguire and Raynor, 2006: 8). Like many of the studies of mentoring that have already been discussed Maguire and Raynor (1997) also highlight the importance of throughcare, suggesting this may increase the chances of interventions being effective, and the offenders involved desisting. They define throughcare as encompassing the following characteristics; Early preparation for release and planning. Creation of a close relationship with the offender before they are released from prison. A focus on continuity between work started with individuals whilst they are in custody with work taking place upon release. The provision of any required services (for example a drug treatment worker) as soon as is possible after their release (Maguire and Raynor, 1997). As has been proven through the evaluation of previous studies into the impact of mentoring on reoffending, as a rehabilitative intervention and one which aims to aid the resettlement process, it has huge potential to be able to curb offending behaviour. However little research has yet to be done into what impact mentoring can have as part of the whole process of desistance and what it is about mentoring that specifically encourages or discourages the mentees to desist in the long run. Maguire and Raynor (1997; 2006) have gone at least some way to link how interventions should be structured in order to promote desistance, and this dissertation will be exploring this process in relation to the specific intervention of mentoring.

Commentary on Like Water for Chocolate by Laura Esquivel Essay examples

Commentary on Like Water for Chocolate by Laura Esquivel The novel Like Water for Chocolate is the story of a woman fighting tradition in quest for love and freedom. The novel has diverse relations of apathy and love between the characters. The author Esquivel illustrates these relations by the use of the colors red and white. Throughout the novel Like Water for Chocolate, Laura Esquivel uses the colors red and white to symbolize love and apathy in the relationships between the characters. Laura Esquivel uses the color red to symbolize love and passion in relationships. In the following quote "Mamma Elena had come to get a sheet or something and had caught Tita red-handed."(p. 136) The little box that contained mamma Elena's old love letters with her old love, Jose Trevino. Tita, being caught 'red-handed' may symbolize that her hands had been stained and contaminated with the love that was concealed inside the box. Another quote that reinforces the motif red is when Tita asked Nacha is she was to add more food coloring...

Losing Free Speech -- Freedom of Speech

â€Å"I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.† These words were spoken by Franà §ois-Marie Arouet, more well known by his pen name, Voltaire (Quotes About Censorship, #36). A French philosopher from the seventeen hundreds, Voltaire is believed to have influenced the Founding Fathers of America. As a matter of fact, this quote makes up the backbone of the First Amendment from the U.S. Constitution, which states: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. While these words were originally written as a kiss-off of sorts to Great Britain, they were also crafted in a way that would transition throughout generations. However, what exactly do these words mean today? How far can someone go and still be able to defend their actions with the phrase â€Å"freedom of speech?† A general rule of thumb that has been used was the fire in a crowded theater example, (it is unlawful to yell â€Å"Fire!† in a crowded room, due to the endangerment of those inside) but society has reached an age where there are more ways than just word of mouth to cause panic. Nowadays, a rapper can send subliminal messages about spousal abuse through a popular song. Nowadays, a simple Facebook conversation between friends on a social networking sites can cause suspension, or in some cases, expulsion. Nowadays, a simple wardrobe malfunction on live, network television can launch a federal investigation spanning five years over whether or not a pop starâ₠¬â„¢s nipple can be deemed â€Å"offensive.† Pop culture has effectiv... .... â€Å"PERSON OF THE YEAR: THE SHORT LIST: JULIAN ASSANGE.† TIME: 90-94. PRINT. HARRIS, MARK. â€Å"CENSOR AND SENSIBILITY.† ENTERTAINMENT WEEKLY: 36. PRINT. â€Å"FAQ’S ABOUT THE PARENTS TELEVISION COUNCIL.† PARENTS TELEVISION COUNCIL. THE PARENTS TELEVISION COUNCIL, N.D. WEB. 1 FEB 2011 . â€Å"INTERNET QUOTES, SAYINGS ABOUT THE WORLD WIDE WEB.† THE QUOTE GARDEN. N.D. WEB. 3 FEB 2011 . â€Å"H.S. TEACHER LOSES JOB OVER FACEBOOK POSTING - BOSTON NEWS STORY - WCVB BOSTON.† THE BOSTON CHANNEL. WCVB TV 5, 18 AUGUST 2010. WEB. 12 FEB 2011 . â€Å"CENSORSHIP QUOTES, FREEDOM OF SPEECH SAYINGS.† THE QUOTE GARDEN. N.D. WEB. 7 FEB 2011 .

Conformity Essay

This change is in response to real (involving the physical presence of others) or imagined (involving the pressure of social norms / expectations) group pressure. Conformity can also be simply defined as â€Å"yielding to group pressures† (Crutchfield, 1955). Group pressure may take different forms, for example bullying, persuasion, teasing, criticism etc. Conformity is also known as majority influence (or group pressure). The term conformity is often used to indicate an agreement to the majority position, brought about either by a desire to ‘fit in’ or be liked (normative) or because of a desire to be correct (informational), or simply to conform to a social role (identification). There have been many experiments in psychology investigating conformity and group pressure. Jenness (1932) was the first psychologist to study conformity. His experiment was an ambiguous situation involving a glass bottle filled with beans. He asked participants individually to estimate how many beans the bottle contained. Jenness then put the group in a room with the bottle, and asked them to provide a group estimate through discussion. Participants were then asked to estimate the number on their own again to find whether their initial estimates had altered based on the influence of the majority. Jenness then interviewed the participants individually again, and asked if they would like to change their original estimates, or stay with the group’s estimate. Almost all changed their individual guesses to be closer to the group estimate. However, perhaps the most famous conformity experiment was by Solomon Asch (1951) and his line judgment experiment. Types of Social Conformity Man (1969) states that â€Å"the essence of conformity is yielding to group pressure†. He identified three types of conformity: Normative, informational and ingratiational. Kelman (1958) distinguished between three different types of conformity: Compliance, Internalization and identification. Normative ConformityInformational Conformity Yielding to group pressure because a person wants to fit in with the group. E.g. Asch Line Study. Conforming because the person is scared of being rejected by the group. This type of conformity usually involves compliance – where a person publicly accepts the views of a group but privately rejects them. This usually occurs when a person lacks knowledge and looks to the group for guidance. Or when a person is in an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) situation and socially compares their behavior with the group. E.g. Sherif Study. This type of conformity usually involves internalization – where a person accepts the views of the groups and adopts them as an individual. ComplianceInternalization Publicly changing behavior to fit in with the group while privately disagreeing. In other words, conforming to the majority (publicly), in spite of not really agreeing with them (privately). This is seen in Asch’s line experiment. Publicly changing behavior to fit in with the group and also agreeing with them privately. This is seen in Sherif’s autokinetic experiment. Ingratiational ConformityIdentification Where a person conforms to impress or gain favor/acceptance from other people. It is similar to normative influence but is motivated by the need for social rewards rather than the threat of rejection, i.e., group pressure does not enter the decision to conform. Conforming to the expectations of a social role. Similar to compliance, there does not have to be a change in private opinion. A good example is Zimbardo’s Prison Study. Sherif (1935) Autokinetic Effect Experiment Aim: Sherif (1935) conducted an experiment with the aim of demonstrating that people conform to group norms when they are put in an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) situation. Method: Sherif used a lab experiment to study conformity. He used the autokinetic effect – this is where a small spot of light (projected onto a screen) in a dark room will appear to move, even though it is still (i.e. it is a visual illusion). It was discovered that when participants were individually tested their estimates on how far the light moved varied considerably (e.g. from 20cm to 80cm). The participants were then tested in groups of three. Sherif manipulated the composition of the group by putting together two people whose estimate of the light movement when alone was very similar, and one person whose estimate was very different. Each person in the group had to say aloud how far they thought the light had moved. Results: Sherif found that over numerous estimates (trials) of the movement of light, the group converged to a common estimate. As the figure below shows: the person whose estimate of movement was greatly different to the other two in the group conformed to the view of the other two. Sherif said that this showed that people would always tend to conform. Rather than make individual judgments they tend to come to a group agreement. Conclusion: The results show that when in an ambiguous situation (such as the  autokinetic effect), a person will look to others (who know more / better) for guidance (i.e. adopt the group norm). They want to do the right thing but may lack the appropriate information. Observing others can provide this information. This is known as informational conformity. Non Conformity Not everyone conform to social pressure. Indeed, their are many factors that contribute to an individual’s desire to remain independent of the group. For example, Smith and Bond (1998) discovered cultural differences in conformity between western and eastern countries. People from western cultures (such as America and the UK) are more likely to be individualistic and don’t want to be seen as being the same as everyone else. This means that they value being independent and self sufficient (the individual is more important that the group), and as such are more likely to participate in non conformity. In contrast eastern cultures (such as Asian countries) are more likely to value the needs of the family and other social groups before their own. They are known as collectivist cultures and are more likely to conform.

Deviant Behavior Essay

One man having more than one wife can be a deviant behavior depending on the country and a person’s beliefs. Polygamy is considered normal and lawful in many countries, but it is outlawed in the United States. The people that believe in it say that monogamy is not natural and it oppresses the social structure. Those against it, say it is a religious offense, or that it violates a spouse’s right to intimacy. The Mormon belief is that polygamy is holy and was practiced commonly in ancient times. Having more than one wife is not only natural it is expected in most cases. However in other societies, some believe it is not only wrong but it’s also against the law. The law can be tricky at times especially when it involves religion because as long as a man is following the Mormon faith he can have more than one wife I think. The majority of incarcerated people live below the poverty level because they can’t afford to hire a good attorney and have to settle for the one appointed to them. However, those with money and power can buy just about anything, whether it’s a good lawyer, or to bribe people in high places. The deviant behavior of the powerful is generally considered to be their business and would normally be ignored by society. Someone who is less powerful would have to accept it and deal with whatever punishment they are given. If the wealthy and powerful are lucky enough, they will do a short Federal prison time. The less fortunate go straight to jail or prison. For example, if an average person gets pulled over for a DUI, they will usually get their liscense suspended, serve 30 days or so in jail, and have large fines to pay. A person of power will most likely be able to post bond within a few hours and pay court fines as soon as they can.

The Function of Criticism at the Present Time

THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Matthew Arnold THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Table of Contents THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1 Matthew Arnold†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1 i THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Matthew Arnold This page copyright  © 2001 Blackmask Online. ttp://www. blackmask. com â€Å"Our antagonist is our helper. This amicable conflict with difficulty obliges us to an intimate acquaintance with our object, and compels us to consider it in all its relations. It will not suffer us to be superficial. â€Å" BURKE. THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME. MANY objections have been made to a proposition which, in some remarks of mine on translating Homer, I ventured to put forth; a proposition about criticism, and its importance at the present day.I said: â€Å"Of the literature of France and Germany, as of the intellect of Europe in general, the main effort, for now many years, has been a critical effort; the endeavour, in all branches of knowledge, theology, philosophy, history, art, science, to see the object as in itself it really is. † I added, that owing to the operation in English litera? ture of certain causes, â€Å"almost the last thing for which one would come to English literature is just that very thing which now Europe most desires criticism;† and that the power and value of English literature was thereby impaired.More than one rejoinder declared that the importance I here assigned to criticism was excessive, and asserted the inherent superiority of the creative effort of the human spirit over its critical effort. And the other day, having been led by an excellent notice of Wordsworth published in the North British Review, to turn again to his biography, I found, in the words of this great man, whom I, for one, must always listen to with the profoundest respect, a sentence passed on the critic's business, which seems to justify every possible disparagement of it.Wordsworth says in one of his letters: â€Å"The writers in these publications† (the Reviews), â€Å"while they prosecute their inglorious employment, can? not be supposed to be in a state of mind very favour? able for being affected by the finer influences of a thing so pure as genuine poetry. † And a trustworthy reporter of his conversation quotes a more elaborate judgment to the same effect: â€Å"Wordsworth holds the critical power very low, in? initely lower than the inventive and he said to? da y that if the quantity of time consumed in writing critiques on the works of others were given to original com? position, of whatever kind it might be, it would be much better employed; it would make a man find out sooner his own level, and it would do infinitely less mischief. A false or malicious criticism may do much injury to the minds of others; a stupid invention, either in prose or verse, is quite harmless. It is almost too much to expect of poor human nature, that a man capable of producing some effect in one line of literature, should, for the greater good of society, voluntarily doom himself to impotence and obscurity in another. THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 1 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Still less is this to be expected from men addicted to the composition of the â€Å"false or malicious criticism,† of which Wordsworth speaks. How? ver, everybody would admit that a false or malicious criticism had better never have been written. E very? body, too, would be willing to admit, as a general propo? sition, that the critical faculty is lower than the inventive. But is it true that criticism is really, in itself, a baneful and injurious employment; is it true that all time given to writing critiques on the works of others would be much better employed if it were given to original composition, of whatever kind this may be?Is it true that Johnson had better have gone on producing more Irenes instead of writing his Lives of the Poets; nay, is it certain that Wordsworth himself was better employed in making his Ecclesiastical Sonnets, than when he made his celebrated Preface, so full of criticism, and criticism of the works of others? Wordsworth was himself a great critic, and it is to be sincerely regretted that he has not left us more criticism; Goethe was one of the greatest of critics, and we may sincerely congratu? late ourselves that he has left us so much criticism.Without wasting time over the exaggeration which Wordsworth's judgment on criticism clearly contains, or over an attempt to trace the causes, not difficult I think to be traced, which may have led Wordsworth to this exaggeration, a critic may with advantage seize an occasion for trying his own conscience, and for asking himself of what real service, at any given moment, the practice of criticism either is, or may be made, to his own mind and spirit, and to the minds and spirits of others. The critical power is of lower rank than the creative.True; but in assenting to this proposition, one or two things are to be kept in mind. It is undeniable that the exercise of a creative power, that a free creative activity, is the true function of man; it is proved to be so by man's finding in it his true happiness. But it is un? deniable, also, that men may have the sense of exercising this free creative activity in other ways than in producing great works of literature or art; if it were not so, all but a very few men would be shut out from the true happiness of all men; they may have it in well? oing, they may have it in learning, they may have it even in criticising. This is one thing to be kept in mind. Another is, that the exercise of the creative power in the production of great works of literature or art, however high this exercise of it may rank, is not at all epochs and under all conditions possible; and that therefore labour may be vainly spent in attempting it, which might with more fruit be used in preparing for it, in rendering it possible. This creative power works with elements, with materials; what if it has not those materials, those elements, ready for its use?In that case it must surely wait till they are ready. Now in literature, I will limit myself to literature, for it is about literature that the question arises, the elements with which the creative power works are ideas; the best ideas, on every matter which literature touches, current at the time; at any rate we may lay it down as certain that in modern literature no manifestation of the creative power not working with these can be very important or fruitful.And I say current at the time, not merely accessible at the time; for creative literary genius does not principally show itself in discovering new ideas; that is rather the business of the philosopher; the grand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery; its gift lies in the faculty of being happily inspired by a certain intellectual and spiritual atmosphere, by a certain order of ideas, when it finds itself in them; of dealing divinely with these ideas, presenting them in the most effective and attractive combinations, making beautiful works with them, in short.But it must have the atmosphere, it must find itself amidst the order of ideas, in order to work freely; and these it is not so easy to command. This is why great creative epochs in literature are so rare; this is why there is so much that is unsatisfactory in the productions of many men of real genius; because for the creation of a master? work of literature two powers must concur, the power of the man and the power of the moment, and the man is not enough without the moment; the creative power has, for its happy exercise, appointed elements, and those ele? ents are not in its own control. Nay, they are more within the control of the critical power. It is the business of the critical power, as I said in the words already quoted, â€Å"in all branches of know? ledge, theology, philosophy, history, art, science, to see the object as in itself it really is. † Thus it tends, at last, to make an intellectual situation of which the creative power can profitably avail itself.It tends to establish an order of ideas, if not absolutely true, yet true by comparison with that which it displaces; to make the best ideas prevail. Presently these new ideas reach society, the touch of truth is the touch of life, and there is a stir and growth eve rywhere; out of this stir and growth come the creative epochs of literature. Or, to narrow our range, and quit these considerations of the general march of genius and of society, THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 2THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME considera? tions which are apt to become too abstract and impalp? able, every one can see that a poet, for instance, ought to know life and the world before dealing with them in poetry; and life and the world being, in modern times, very complex things, the creation of a modern poet, to be worth much, implies a great critical effort behind it; else it must be a comparatively poor, barren, and short? ived affair. This is why Byron's poetry had so little endurance in it, and Goethe's so much; both Byron and Goethe had a great productive power, but Goethe's was nourished by a great critical effort providing the true materials for it, and Byron's was not; Goethe knew life and the world, the poet's necessary subjects, mu ch more comprehensively and thoroughly than Byron. He knew a great deal more of them, and he knew them much more as they really are.It has long seemed to me that the burst of creative activity in our literature, through the first quarter of this century, had about it, in fact, something premature; and that from this cause its productions are doomed, most of them, in spite of the sanguine hopes which accompanied and do still accompany them, to prove hardly more lasting than the productions of far less splendid epochs. And this prematureness comes from its having proceeded without having its proper data, without sufficient materials to work with.In other words, the English poetry of the first quarter of this century, with plenty of energy, plenty of creative force, did not know enough. This makes Byron so empty of matter, Shelley so incoherent, Words? worth even, profound as he is, yet so wanting in com? pleteness and variety. Wordsworth cared little for books, and disparaged Goethe. I admire Wordsworth, as he is, so much that I cannot wish him different; and it is vain, no doubt, to imagine such a man different from what he is, to suppose that he could have been different; but surely the one thing wanting to make Wordsworth an even greater poet than he is, is thought richer, and his influence of wider application, was that he should have read more books, among them, no doubt, those of that Goethe whom he disparaged without reading him. But to speak of books and reading may easily lead to a misunderstanding here. It was not really books and reading that lacked to our poetry, at this epoch; Shelley had plenty of reading, Coleridge had immense reading. Pindar and Sophocles, as we all say so glibly, and often with so little discernment of the real import of what we are saying, had ot many books; Shakspeare was no deep reader. True; but in the Greece of Pindar and Sophocles, in the England of Shakspeare, the poet lived in a current of ideas in the highest degree ani mating and nourishing to the creative power; society was, in the fullest measure, permeated by fresh thought, intelligent and alive; and this state of things is the true basis for the creative power's exercise, in this it finds its data, its materials, truly ready for its hand; all the books and reading in the world are only valuable as they are helps to this.Even when this does not actually exist, books and reading may enable a man to construct a kind of semblance of it in his own mind, a world of knowledge and intelligence in which he may live and work; this is by no means an equivalent, to the artist, for the nationally diffused life and thought of the epochs of Sophocles or Shakspeare, but, besides that it may be a means of preparation for such epochs, it does really constitute, if many share in it, a quickening and sustaining atmosphere of great value. Such an atmosphere the many? sided learning and the long and widely? ombined critical effort of Germany formed for Goethe, when he lived and worked. There was no national glow of life and thought there, as in the Athens of Pericles, or the England of Elizabeth. That was the poet's weakness. But there was a sort of equivalent for it in the complete culture and unfettered thinking of a large body of Germans. That was his strength. In the England of the first quarter of this century, there was neither a national glow of life and thought, such as we had in the age of Elizabeth, nor yet a culture and a force of learning and criticism, such as were to be found in Germany.Therefore the creative power of poetry wanted, for success in the highest sense, materials and a basis; a thorough interpretation of the world was necessarily denied to it. At first sight it seems strange that out of the immense stir of the French Revolution and its age should not have come a crop of works of genius equal to that which came out of the stir of the great productive time of Greece, or out of that of the Renaissance, with its powerfu l episode the Reformation. But the truth is that the stir of the French Revolution took a character which essentially distinguished it from such movements as these.These were, in the main, disinterestedly intellectual and spiritual movements; movements in which the human spirit looked for its satisfaction in itself and in the in? creased play of its own activity: the French Revolution took a political, practical character. The movement which went on in France under the old regime, from 1700 to 1789, was far more really akin than that of the Revolution itself to the movement of the Renaissance; the France of Voltaire and THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 3THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Rousseau told far more powerfully upon the mind of Europe than the France of the Revolution. Goethe reproached this last expressly with having â€Å"thrown quiet culture back. † Nay, and the true key to how much in our Byron, even in our Words? worth, is this! that the y had their source in a great movement of feeling, not in a great movement of mind. The French Revolution, however, that object of so much blind love and so much blind hatred, found undoubtedly its motive? ower in the intelligence of men and not in their practical sense; this is what distinguishes it from the English Revolution of Charles the First's time; this is what makes it a more spiritual event than our Re? volution, an event of much more powerful and world? wide interest, though practically less successful; it appeals to an order of ideas which are universal, certain, permanent. 1789 asked of a thing, Is it rational? 1642 asked of a thing, Is it legal? or, when it went furthest, Is it according to conscience?This is the English fashion; a fashion to be treated, within its own sphere, with the highest respect; for its success, within its own sphere, has been prodigious. But what is law in one place, is not law in another; what is law here to? day, is not law even here tomorrow ; and as for conscience, what is binding on one man's conscience is not binding on another's; the old woman who threw her stool at the head of the surpliced minister in St. Giles's Church at Edinburgh obeyed an impulse to which millions of the human race may be permitted to remain strangers. But the pre? criptions of reason are absolute, unchanging, of universal validity; to count by tens is the simplest way of counting,* *A writer in the Saturday Review, who has offered me some counsels about style for which I am truly grateful, suggests that this should stand as follows: To take as your unit an established base of notation, ten being given as the base of notation, is, except for numbers under twenty, the simplest way of counting. I tried it so, but I assure him, without jealousy, that the more I looked at his improved way of putting the thing, the less I liked it.It seems to me that the maxim, in this shape, would never make the tour of a world, where most of us are plain easy? sp oken people. He forgets that he is a reasoner, a member of a school, a disciple of the great Bentham, and that he naturally talks in the scientific way of his school, with exact accuracy, philosophic propriety; I am a mere solitary wanderer in search of the light, and I talk an artless, un? studied, every? day, familiar language. But, after all, this is the language of the mass of the world.The mass of Frenchmen who felt the force of that prescription of the reason which my reviewer, in his purified language, states thus: to count by tens has the advantage of taking as your unit the base of an * that is a proposition of which every one, from here to the Antipodes, feels the force; at least, I should say so, if we did not live in a country where it is not impossible that any morning we may find a letter in the Times declaring that a decimal coinage is an absurdity.That a whole nation should have been pene? trated with an enthusiasm for pure reason, and with an ardent zeal for making its prescriptions triumph, is a very * established system of notation, certainly rendered this, for themselves, in some such loose language as mine. My point is that they felt the force of a prescription of the reason so strongly that they legislated in accordance with it. They may have been wrong in so doing; they may have foolishly omitted to take other prescriptions of reason into account; he non? English world does not seem to think so, but let that pass; what I say is, that by legislating as they did they showed a keen susceptibility to purely rational, intellectual considerations. On the other hand, does my reviewer say that we keep our mone? tary system unchanged because our nation has grasped the intellec? tual proposition which he puts, in his masterly way, thus : {{â€Å"}}to count by twelves has the advantage of taking as your unit a number in itself far more convenient than ten for that purpose? Surely not; but because our system is there, and we are too practical a pe ople to trouble ourselves about its intellectual aspect. To take a second case. The French Revolutionists abolished the sale of offices, because they thought (my reviewer will kindly allow me to put the thing in my imperfect, popular language) the sale of offices a gross anomaly. We still sell commissions in the army. I have no doubt my reviewer, with his scientific powers, can easily invent some beautiful formula to make us appear to be doing this on the purest philosophical principles; the rinciples of Hobbes, Locke, Bentham, Mr. Mill, Mr. Bain, and himself, their THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 4 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME worthy disciple. But surely the plain unscientific account of the matter is, that we have the anomalous practice (he will allow it is, in itself, an anomalous practice? ) established, and that (in the words of senatorial wisdom already quoted) â€Å"for a thing to be an anomaly we consider to be no objection to it whatever. â⠂¬  emarkable thing, when we consider how little of mind, or anything so worthy and quickening as mind, comes into the motives which alone, in general, impel great masses of men. In spite of the extravagant direction given to this enthusiasm, in spite of the crimes and follies in which it lost itself, the French Revolution derives, from the force, truth, and universality of the ideas which it took for its law, and from the passion with which it could inspire a multitude for these ideas, a unique and still living power; it is, it will probably long remain, he greatest, the most animating event in history. And, as no sincere passion for the things of the mind, even though it turn out in many respects an unfortunate passion, is ever quite thrown away and quite barren of good, France has reaped from hers one fruit, the natural and legitimate fruit, though not precisely the grand fruit she expected; she is the country in Europe where the people is most alive. But the mania for giving an immediate political and practical application to all these fine ideas of the reason was fatal.Here an Englishman is in his element: on this theme we can all go on for hours. And all we are in the habit of saying on it has undoubtedly a great deal of truth. Ideas cannot be too much prized in and for themselves, cannot be too much lived with; but to transport them abruptly into the world of politics and practice, violently to revolutionise this world to their bidding, that is quite another thing. There is the world of ideas and there is the world of practice; the French are often for suppressing the one and the English the other; but neither is to be suppressed.A member of the House of Commons said to me the other day: â€Å"That a thing is an anomaly, I consider to be no objection to it what? ever. † I venture to think he was wrong; that a thing is an anomaly is an objection to it, but absolutely and in the sphere of ideas: it is not necessarily, under such and such circumsta nces, or at such and such a moment, an objection to it in the sphere of politics and practice. Joubert has said beautifully: â€Å"C'est la force et le droit qui reglent toutes choses dans le monde; la force en attendant le droit. † Force and right are the governors of this world; force till right is ready.Force till right is ready; and till right is ready, force, the existing order of things, is justified, is the legitimate ruler. But right is something moral, and implies inward recognition, free assent of the will; we are not ready for right, right, so far as we are concerned, is not ready, until we have attained this sense of seeing it and willing it. The way in which for us it may change and transform force, the existing order of things, and become, in its turn, the legitimate ruler of the world, will depend on the way in which, when our time comes, we see it and will it.Therefore for other people enamoured of their own newly discerned right, to attempt to impose it upon us as ours, and violently to substitute their right for our force, is an act of tyranny, and to be resisted. It sets at nought the second great half of our maxim, force till right is ready. This was the grand error of the French Revolution, and its movement of ideas, by quitting the intellectual sphere and rushing furiously into the political sphere, ran, in? eed, a prodigious and memorable course, but produced no such intellectual fruit as the movement of ideas of the Renaissance, and created, in opposition to itself, what I may call an epoch of concentration. The great force of that epoch of concentration was England; and the great voice of that epoch of concentration was Burke. It is the fashion to treat Burke's writings on the French Revolution as superannuated and conquered by the event; as the eloquent but unphilosophical tirades of bigotry and prejudice.I will not deny that they are often disfigured by the violence and passion of the moment, and that in some directions Burke' s view was bounded, and his observation therefore at fault; but on the whole, and for those who can make the needful corrections, what distinguishes these writings is their profound, permanent, fruitful, philosophical truth; they contain the true philosophy of an epoch of concentration, dissipate the heavy atmosphere which its own nature is apt to engender round it, and make its resistance rational instead of mechanical.But Burke is so great because, almost alone in England, he brings thought to bear upon politics, he saturates politics with thought; it is his accident that his ideas were at the service of an epoch of concentration, not of an epoch of expansion; it is his characteristic that he so lived by ideas, and had such a source of them welling up within him, that he could float even an epoch of con? centration and English Tory politics with them. It does not hurt him that Dr. Price and the Liberals were enraged with him; it does not even hurt him that George the Third THE FUN CTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 5THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME and the Tories were enchanted with him. His greatness is that he lived in a world which neither English Liberal? ism nor English Toryism is apt to enter; the world of ideas, not the world of catchwords and party habits. So far is it from being really true of him that he â€Å"to party gave up what was meant for mankind,† that at the very end of his fierce struggle with the French Revolution, after all his invectives against its false pretensions, hollow? ess, and madness, with his sincere conviction of its mischievousness, he can close a memorandum on the best means of combating it, some of the last pages he ever wrote, the Thoughts on French Affairs, in December, 1791, with these striking words: â€Å"The evil is stated, in my opinion, as it exists. The remedy must be where power, wisdom, and information, I hope, are more united with good intentions than they can be with me. I have done wi th this subject, I believe, for ever. It has given me many anxious moments for the last two years.If a great change is to be made in human affairs, the minds of men be fitted to it; the general opinions and feelings will draw that way. Every fear, every hope will forward it; and then they who persist in opposing this mighty current in human affairs, will appear rather to resist the decrees of Providence itself, than the mere designs of men. They will not be resolute and firm, but perverse and obstinate. † That return of Burke upon himself has always seemed to me one of the finest things in English literature, or indeed, in any literature.That is what I call living by ideas; when one side of a question has long had your earnest support, when all your feelings are engaged, when you hear all round you no language but one, when your party talks this language like a steam engine and can imagine no other, still to be able to think, still to be irresistibly carried, if so it be, by t he current of thought to the opposite side of the question, and, like Balaam, to be unable to speak anything but what the Lord has put in your mouth.I know nothing more striking, and I must add that I know nothing more un? English. For the Englishman in general is like my friend the Member of Parliament, and believes, point? blank, that for a thing to be an anomaly is absolutely no objection to it whatever. He is like the Lord Auckland of Burke's day, who, in a memorandum on the French Revolution, talks of â€Å"certain miscreants, assuming the name of philosophers, who have presumed themselves capable of establishing a new system of society. The Englishman has been called a political animal, and he values what is political and practical so much that ideas easily become objects of dislike in his eyes, and thinkers â€Å"miscreants,† because ideas and thinkers have rashly meddled with politics and practice. This would be all very well if the dislike and neglect confined thems elves to ideas transported out of their own sphere, and meddling rashly with practice; but they are inevitably extended to ideas as such, and to the whole life of intelligence; practice is everything, a free play of the mind is nothing.The notion of the free play of the mind upon all subjects being a pleasure in itself, being an object of desire, being an essential provider of elements without which a nation's spirit, whatever compensations it may have for them, must, in the long run, die of inanition, hardly enters into an Englishman's thoughts. It {{is}} [[[it]]] noticeable that the word curiosity, which in other languages is used in a good sense, to mean, as a high and fine quality of man's nature, just this disinterested love of a free play of the mind on all subjects, for its own sake, t is noticeable, I say, that this word has in our language no sense of the kind, no sense but a rather bad and disparaging one. But criticism, real criticism, is essentially the exercise of this very quality; it obeys an instinct prompting it to try to know the best that is known and thought in the world, irrespectively of practice, politics, and everything of the kind; and to value knowledge and thought as they approach this best, without the intrusion of any other considerations whatever.This is an instinct for which there is, I think, little original sympathy in the practical English nature, and what there was of it has undergone a long benumbing period of blight and suppression in the epoch of concentration which followed the French Revolution. THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 6 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME But epochs of concentration cannot well endure for ever; epochs of expansion, in the due course of things, follow them.Such an epoch of expansion seems to be opening in this country. In the first place all danger of a hostile forcible pressure of foreign ideas upon our practice has long disappeared; like the traveller in the fable, there fore, we begin to wear our cloak a little more loosely. Then, with a long peace, the ideas of Europe steal gradually and amicably in, and mingle, though in infinitesimally small quantities at a time, with our own notions.Then, too, in spite of all that is said about the absorbing and brutalising influence of our passionate material progress, it seems to me indisputable that this progress is likely, though not certain, to lead in the end to an apparition of intellectual life; and that man, after he has made himself perfectly comfortable and has now to determine what to do with himself next, may begin to remember that he has a mind, and that the mind may be made the source of great pleasure. I grant it is mainly the privilege of faith, at present, to discern this end to our railways, our business, and our fortune? aking; but we shall see if, here as elsewhere, faith is not in the end the true prophet. Our ease, our travelling, and our un? bounded liberty to hold just as hard and secur ely as we please to the practice to which our notions have given birth, all tend to beget an inclination to deal a little more freely with these notions themselves, to canvass them a little, to penetrate a little into their real nature. Flutterings of curiosity, in the foreign sense of the word, appear amongst us, and it is in these that criticism must look to find its account.Criticism first; a time of true creative activity, perhaps, which, as I have said, must inevitably be preceded amongst us by a time of criticism, hereafter, when criticism has done its work. It is of the last importance that English criticism should clearly discern what rule for its course, in order to avail itself of the field now opening to it, and to pro? duce fruit for the future, it ought to take. The rule may be summed up in one word, disinterestedness. And how is criticism to show disinterestedness?By keeping aloof from practice; by resolutely following the law of its own nature, which is to be a free play of the mind on all subjects which it touches; by steadily refusing to lend itself to any of those ulterior, political, practical con? siderations about ideas which plenty of people will be sure to attach to them, which perhaps ought often to be attached to them, which in this country at any rate are certain to be attached to them quite sufficiently, but which criticism has really nothing to do with. Its busi? ess is, as I have said, simply to know the best that is known and thought in the world, and by in its turn making this known, to create a current of true and fresh ideas. Its business is to do this with inflexible honesty, with due ability; but its business is to do no more, and to leave alone all questions of practical consequences and applications, questions which will never fail to have due prominence given to them. Else criticism, besides being really false to its own nature, merely continues in the old rut which it has hitherto followed in this country, and will certa inly miss the chance now given to it.For what is at present the bane of criticism in this country? It is that practical considerations cling to it and stifle it; it subserves interests not its own; our organs of criticism are organs of men and parties having practical ends to serve, and with them those practical ends are the first thing and the play of mind the second; so much play of mind as is compatible with the prosecution of those prac? tical ends is all that is wanted. An organ like the Revue des Deux Mondes, having for its main function to under? tand and utter the best that is known and thought in the world, existing, it may be said, as just an organ for a` free play of the mind, we have not; but we have the Edinburgh Review, existing as an organ of the old Whigs, and for as much play of mind as may suit its being that; we have the Quarterly Review, existing as an organ of the Tories, and for as much play of mind as may suit its being that; we have the British Quarterly Revi ew, exist? ng as an organ of the political Dissenters, and for as much play of mind as may suit its being that; we have the Times, existing as an organ of the common, satisfied, well? to? do Englishman, and for as much play of mind as may suit its being that. And so on through all the various fractions, political and religious, of our society; every fraction has, as such, its organ of criticism, but the notion of combining all fractions in the common pleasure of a free disinterested play of mind meets with no favour.Directly this play of mind wants to have more scope, and to forget the pressure of practical considerations a little, it is checked, it is made to feel the chain; we saw this the other day in the extinction, so much to be regretted, of the Home and Foreign Review; perhaps in no organ of criticism in this country was there so much knowledge, so much play of mind; but these could not save it; the Dublin Review subordinates play of mind to the prac? tical business of Englis h and Irish Catholicism, and lives. It must needs be that men should act in sects and par? ies, that each of these sects and parties should have its organ, and should make this organ subserve the interests of its action; but it would be well, too, that there should be a criticism, not the minister of these interests, not their enemy, but absolutely and entirely THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 7 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME independent of them. No other criticism will ever attain any real authority or make any real way towards its end, the creating a current of true and fresh ideas.It is because criticism has so little kept in the pure intellectual sphere, has so little detached itself from practice, has been so directly polemical and controver? sial, that it has so ill accomplished, in this country, its best spiritual work; which is to keep man from a self? satisfaction which is retarding and vulgarising, to lead him towards perfection, by making his m ind dwell upon what is excellent in itself, and the absolute beauty and fitness of things. A polemical practical criticism makes men blind even to the ideal imperfection of their prac? ice, makes them willingly assert its ideal perfection, in order the better to secure it against attack; and clearly this is narrowing and baneful for them. If they were reassured on the practical side, speculative considera? tions of ideal perfection they might be brought to entertain, and their spiritual horizon would thus gra? dually widen. Adderley says to the Warwickshire farmers: â€Å"Talk of the improvement of breed! Why, the race we ourselves represent, the men and women, the old Anglo? Saxon race, are the best breed in the whole world. †¦The absence of a too enervating climate, too un? clouded skies, and a too luxurious nature, has produced so vigorous a race of people, and has rendered us so superior to all the world. † Mr. Roebuck says to the Sheffield cutlers: â€Å"I look aro und me and ask what is the state of England? Is not property safe? Is not every man able to say what he likes? Can you not walk from one end of England to the other in perfect security? I ask you whether, the world over or in past history, there is any? thing like it? Nothing. I pray that our unrivalled happiness may last. â€Å"Now obviously there is a peril for poor human nature in words and thoughts of such exuberant self? satisfaction, until we find ourselves safe in the streets of the Celestial City. â€Å"Das wenige verschwindet leicht deln Blicke Der vorwarts sieht, wie viel noch ubrig bleibt † says Goethe; the little that is done seems nothing when we look forward and see how much we have yet to do. Clearly this is a better line of reflection for weak humanity, so long as it remains on this earthly field of labour and trial. But neither Mr. Adderley nor Mr. Roebuck are by nature inaccessible to considerations of this sort.They only lose sight of them owing to the con troversial life we all lead, and the practical form which all specu? lation takes with us. They have in view opponents whose aim is not ideal, but practical, and in their zeal to uphold their own practice against these innovators, they go so far as even to attribute to this practice an ideal perfection. Somebody has been wanting to introduce a six? pound franchise, or to abolish church? rates, or to collect agricultural statistics by force, or to diminish local self? government. How natural, in reply to such pro? osals, very likely improper or ill? timed, to go a little beyond the mark, and to say stoutly: â€Å"Such a race of people as we stand, so superior to all the world! The old Anglo? Saxon race, the best breed in the whole world! I pray that our unrivalled happiness may last! I ask you whether, the world over or in past history, there is anything like it! † And so long as criticism answers this dithyramb by insisting that the old Anglo? Saxon race would be still more s uperior to all others if it had no church? rates, or that our unrivalled happiness would last yet longer with a six? ound franchise, so long will the strain, â€Å"The best breed in the whole world! † swell louder and louder, everything ideal and refining will be lost out of sight, and both the assailed and their critics will remain in a sphere, to say the truth, perfectly unvital, a sphere in which spiritual progression is impossible. But let criticism leave church? rates and the franchise alone, and in the most candid spirit, without a single lurking thought of practical innovation, confront with our dithyramb this paragraph on which I stumbled in a news? paper soon after reading Mr. Roebuck: A THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 8 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME shocking child murder has just been committed at Nottingham. A girl named Wragg left the workhouse there on Saturday morning with her young illegitimate child. The child was soon afterwards found dead on Mapperly Hills, having been strangled. Wragg is in custody. † Nothing but that; but, in juxtaposition with the absolute eulogies of Mr. Adderley and Mr. Roebuck, how elo? quent, how suggestive are those few lines! † Our old Anglo? Saxon breed, the best in the whole world! how much that is harsh and ill? favoured there is in this best! Wragg! If we are to talk of ideal perfection, of â€Å"the best in the whole world,† has anyone reflected what a touch of grossness in our race, what an original short? coming in the more delicate spiritual perceptions, is shown by the natural growth amongst us of such hideous names, Higginbottom, Stiggins, Bugg! In Ionia and Attica they were luckier in this respect than â€Å"the best race in the world;† by the Ilissus there was no Wragg, poor thing! And â€Å"our unrivalled happiness;† hat an element of grimness, bareness, and hideousness mixes with it and blurs it; the workhouse, the dismal Map? perly Hills, how dismal those who have seen them will remember; the gloom, the smoke, the cold, the strangled illegitimate child! † I ask you whether, the world over or in past history, there is anything like it? † Perhaps not, one is inclined to answer; but at any rate, in that case, the world is very much to be pitied. And the final touch, short, bleak, and inhuman: Wragg is in custody. The sex lost in the confusion of our unrivalled happiness; or, hall I say? the superfluous Christian name lopped off by the straightforward vigour of our old Anglo? Saxon breed! There is profit for the spirit in such contrasts as this; criticism serves the cause of perfection by esta? blishing them. By eluding sterile conflict, by refusing to remain in the sphere where alone narrow and relative conceptions have any worth and validity, criticism may diminish its momentary importance, but only in this way has it a chance of gaining admittance for those wider and more perfect conceptions to whic h all its duty is really owed. Mr.Roebuck will have a poor opinion of an adversary who replies to his defiant songs of triumph only by murmuring under his breath, Wragg is in custody; but in no other way will these songs of triumph be induced gradually to moderate themselves, to get rid of what in them is excessive and offensive, and to fall into a softer and truer key. It will be said that it is a very subtle and indirect action which I am thus prescribing for criticism, and that by embracing in this manner the Indian virtue of detach? ment and abandoning the sphere of practical life, it condemns itself to a slow and obscure work.Slow and obscure it may be, but it is the only proper work of criticism. The mass of mankind will never have any ardent zeal for seeing things as they are; very inadequate ideas will always satisfy them. On these inadequate ideas reposes, and must repose, the general practice of the world. That is as much as saying that whoever sets himself to see things a s they are will find himself one of a very small circle; but it is only by this small circle resolutely doing its own work that adequate ideas will ever get current at all.The rush and roar of practical life will always have a dizzying and attracting effect upon the most collected spectator, and tend to draw him into its vortex; most of all will this be the case where that life is so powerful as it is in England. But it is only by remaining collected, and refusing to lend himself to the point of view of the practical man, that the critic can do the practical man any service; and it is only by the greatest sincerity in pursuing his own course, and by at last convincing even the practical man of his sincerity, that he can escape misunderstandings which perpetually threaten him.For the practical man is not apt for fine distinctions, and yet in these distinctions truth and the highest culture greatly find their account. But it is not easy to lead a practical man, unless you reassure him as to your prac? tical intentions you have no chance of leading him, to see that a thing which he has always been used to look at from one side only, which he greatly values, and which, looked at from that side, more than deserves, perhaps, all the prizing and admiring which he bestows upon it, hat this thing, looked at from another side, may appear much less beneficent and beautiful, and yet retain all its claims to our practical allegiance. Where shall we find lan? guage innocent enough, how shall we make the spotless purity of our intentions evident enough, to enable us to say to the political Englishman that the British Constitu? tion itself, which, seen from the practical side, looks such a magnificent organ of progress and virtue, seen from the speculative side, with its compromises, its love of facts, its horror of theory, its studied avoidance of clear thoughts, hat, seen from this side, our august Consti? tution sometimes looks, forgive me, shade of Lord Somers! a colossal machine for the manufacture of Philistines? How is Cobbett to say this and not be mis? understood, blackened as he is with the smoke of a life? long conflict in the field of political practice? how is Mr. Carlyle to say it and not be misunderstood, after his THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 9 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME furious raid into this field with his Latter? ay Pamphlets how is Mr. Ruskin, after his pugnacious political economy? I say, the critic must keep out of the region of immediate practice in the political, social, humanitarian sphere, if he wants to make a beginning for that more free specu? lative treatment of things, which may perhaps one day make its benefits felt even in this sphere, but in a natural and thence irresistible manner. Do what he will, however, the critic will still remain exposed to frequent misunderstandings, and nowhere so much as in this country.For here people are particu? larly indisposed even to comprehend that wi thout this free disinterested treatment of things, truth and the highest culture are out of the question. So immersed are they in practical life, so accustomed to take all their notions from this life and its processes, that they are apt to think that truth and culture themselves can be reached by the processes of this life, and that it is an impertinent singularity to think of reaching them in any other. â€Å"We are all terr? ilii,† cries their eloquent advocate; â€Å"all Philistines together. Away with the notion of proceed? ing by any other course than the course dear to the Philistines; let us have a social movement, let us organise and combine a party to pursue truth and new thought, let us call it the liberal party, and let us all stick to each other, and back each other up. Let us have no nonsense about independent criticism, and intellectual delicacy, and the few and the many; don't let us trouble our? elves about foreign thought; we shall invent the whole thing fo r ourselves as we go along; if one of us speaks well, applaud him; if one of us speaks ill, applaud him too; we are all in the same movement, we are all liberals, we are all in pursuit of truth. † In this way the pursuit of truth becomes really a social, practical, pleasureable affair, almost requiring a chairman, a secretary, and advertisements; with the excitement of an occasional scandal, with a little resistance to give the happy sense of difficulty overcome; but, in general, plenty of bustle and very little thought.To act is so easy, as Goethe says; to think is so hard! It is true that the critic has many temptations to go with the stream, to make one of the party of movement, one of these terr? filii; it seems ungracious to refuse to be a terr? filius, when so many excellent people are; but the critic's duty is to refuse, or, if resistance is vain, at least to cry with Obermann: Perissons en resistant. How serious a matter it is to try and resist, I had ample opportunity of experiencing when I ventured some time ago to criticise the celebrated first volume of Bishop Colenso. The echoes of the storm which was then raised I still, from time to time, hear grumbling round me. That storm arose out of a misunderstanding almost inevitable. It is a result of no little culture to attain to a clear perception that science and religion are two wholly different things; the multitude will for ever con? fuse them, but happily that is of no great real im? portance, for while the multitude imagines itself to live by its false science, it does really live by its true religion.Dr. Colenso, however, in his first volume did all he could to strengthen the confusion, and to make it dangerous. * So sincere is my dislike to all personal attack and controversy, that I abstain from reprinting, at this distance of time from the occasion which called them forth, the essays in which I criticised the Bishop of Natal's book; I feel bound, however, after all that has passed, to m ake here a final declaration of my sincere impenitence for having published them.The Bishop of Natal's subsequent volumes are in great measure free from the crying fault of his first; he has at length succeeded in more clearly separating, in his own thoughts, the idea of science from the idea of religion; his mind appears to be opening as he goes along, and he may perhaps end by becoming a useful biblical critic, though never, I think, of the first order. Still, in here taking leave of him at the moment when he is pub? ishing, for popular use, a cheap edition of his work, I cannot forbear repeating yet once more, for his benefit and that of his readers, this sentence from my original remarks upon him: There is truth of science and truth of religion; truth of science does not become truth of religion till it is made religious. And I will add: Let us have all the science there is from the men of science; from the men of religion let us have religion. THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE P RESENT TIME 10THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME It has been said I make it â€Å"a crime against literary criticism * He did this with the best intentions, I freely admit, and with the most candid ignorance that this was the natural effect of what he was doing; but, says Joubert, â€Å"Igno? ance, which in matters of morals extenuates the crime, in itself, in intellectual matters, a crime of the first order. † I criticised Bishop Colenso's speculative confusion. Im? mediately there was a cry raised: â€Å"What is this? here a liberal attacking a liberal. Do not you belong to the movement? are not you a friend of truth?Is not Bishop Colenso in pursuit of truth? then speak with proper respect of his book. Dr. Stanley is another friend of truth, and you speak with proper respect of his book; why make these invidious differences? both books are excellent, admirable, liberal; Bishop Colenso's perhaps the most so, because it is the boldest, and will have the best prac tical consequences for the liberal cause. Do you want to encourage to the attack of a brother liberal his, and your, and our implacable enemies, the Church and State Review or the Record, the High Church rhinoceros and the Evangelical hy? na?Be silent, therefore; or rather speak, speak as loud as ever you can, and go into ecstasies over the eighty and odd pigeons. † But criticism cannot follow this coarse and indiscriminate method. It is unfortunately possible for a man in pur? suit of truth to write a book which reposes upon a false conception. Even the practical consequences of a book are to genuine criticism no recommendation of it, if the book is, in the highest sense, blundering. I see that a *and the higher culture to attempt to inform the ignorant. † Need I point out that the ignorant are not informed by being confirmed in a confusion? ady who herself, too, is in pursuit of truth, and who writes with great ability, but a little too much, perhaps, under the influen ce of the practical spirit of the English liberal movement, classes Bishop Colenso's book and M. Renan's together, in her survey of the religious state of Europe, as facts of the same order, works, both of them, of â€Å"great importance;† â€Å"great ability, power and skill;† Bishop Colenso's, perhaps, the most powerful; at least, Miss Cobbe gives special expression to her gratitude that to Bishop Colenso â€Å"has been given the strength to grasp, and the courage to teach truths of such deep import. In the same way, more than one popular writer has compared him to Luther. Now it is just this kind of false estimate which the critical spirit is, it seems to me, bound to resist. It is really the strongest possible proof of the low ebb at which, in England, the critical spirit is, that while the critical hit in the religious literature of Germany is Dr. Strauss's book, in that of France M. Renan's book, the book of Bishop Colenso is the critical hit in the religious li terature of England. Bishop Colenso's book reposes on a total misconcep? ion of the essential elements of the religious problem, as that problem is now presented for solution. To cri? ticism, therefore, which seeks to have the best that is known and thought on this problem, it is, however well meant, of no importance whatever. M. Renan's book attempts a new synthesis of the elements furnished to us by the four Gospels. It attempts, in my opinion, a synthesis, perhaps premature, perhaps impossible, cer? tainly not successful. Up to the present time, at any rate, we must acquiesce in Fleury's sentence on such recastings of the Gospel story : Quiconque s'imagine la pouvoir mieux ecrire, ne l'entend pas.M. Renan had himself passed by anticipation a like sentence on his own work, when he said: â€Å"If a new presentation of the character of Jesus were offered to me, I would not have it; its very clearness would be, in my opinion, the best proof of its insufficiency. † His friends may with perfect justice rejoin that at the sight of the Holy Land, and of the actual scene of the Gospel? story, all the current of M. Renan's thoughts may have naturally changed, and a new casting of that story irresistibly suggested itself to him; and that this is just a case for applying Cicero's maxim: Change of mind is not inconsistency emo doctus unquam mutationem consilii inconstantiam dixit esse. Nevertheless, for criticism, M. Renan's first thought must still be the truer one, as long as his new casting so fails more fully to commend itself, more fully (to use Coleridge's happy phrase about the Bible) to find us. Still M. Renan's attempt is, for criticism, of the most real interest and importance, since, with all its difficulty, a fresh synthesis of the New Testament data, ot a making war on them, in Voltaire's fashion, not a leaving them out of mind, in the world's fashion, but the putting a new construction upon them, the taking them from under the old, adoptive, traditi onal, un? spiritual point of view and placing them under a new one, is the very essence of the religious problem, as now presented; and only by efforts in this direction can it receive a solution. Again, in the same spirit in which she judges Bishop Colenso, Miss Cobbe, like so many earnest liberals of our THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 11THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME practical race, both here and in America, herself sets vigorously about a positive reconstruction of religion, about making a religion of the future out of hand, or at least setting about making it; we must not rest, she and they are always thinking and saying, in negative criti? cism, we must be creative and constructive; hence we have such works as her recent Religious Duty, and works still more considerable, perhaps, by others, which will be in everyone's mind.These works often have much ability; they often spring out of sincere convictions, and a sincere wish to do good; and they some times, perhaps, do good. Their fault is (if I may be permitted to say so) one which they have in common with the British College of Health, in the New Road. Everyone knows the British College of Health; it is that building with the lion and the statue of the Goddess Hygeia before it; at least, I am sure about the lion, though I am not absolutely certain about the Goddess Hygeia. This building does credit, perhaps, to the resources of Dr.Morrison and his disciples; but it falls a good deal short of one's idea of what a British College of Health ought to be. In England, where we hate public inter? ference and love individual enterprise, we have a whole crop of places like the British College of Health; the grand name without the grand thing. Unluckily, credit? able to individual enterprise as they are, they tend to impair our taste by making us forget what more grandiose, noble, or beautiful character properly belongs to a public institution. The same may be said of the religions of t he future of Miss Cobbe and others.Creditable, like the British College of Health, to the resources of their authors, they yet tend to make us forget what more grandiose, noble, or beautiful character properly belongs to religious constructions. The historic religions, with all their faults, have had this; it certainly belongs to the religious sentiment, when it truly flowers, to have this; and we impoverish our spirit if we allow a religion of the future without it. What then is the duty of criticism here? To take the practical point of view, to applaud the liberal movement and all its works, its New Road religions of the future into the bargain, or their general utility's sake? By no means; but to be perpetually dis? satisfied with these works, while they perpetually fall short of a high and perfect ideal. For criticism, these are elementary laws; but they never can be popular, and in this country they have been very little followed, and one meets with immense obstacles in followi ng them. That is a reason for asserting them again and again. Criticism must maintain its independence of the practical spirit and its aims. Even with well? meant efforts of the practical spirit it must express dissatisfaction, if in the sphere of the ideal they seem impoverishing and limiting.It must not hurry on to the goal because of its practical importance. It must be patient, and know how to wait; and flexible, and know how to attach itself to things and how to withdraw from them. It must be apt to study and praise elements that for the fulness of spiritual perfection are wanted, even though they belong to a power which in the prac? tical sphere may be maleficent. It must be apt to discern the spiritual shortcomings or illusions of powers that in the practical sphere may be beneficent. And this with? ut any notion of favouring or injuring, in the practical sphere, one power or the other; without any notion of playing off, in this sphere, one power against the other. When one l ooks, for instance, at the English Divorce Court, an institution which perhaps has its practical conveniences, but which in the ideal sphere is so hideous;* *A critic, already quoted, says that I have no right, on my own principles, to â€Å"object to practical measures on theoretical grounds,† and that only â€Å"when a man has got a theory which will fully explain all the duties of the legislator on the matter of marriage, will he have a right to abuse the Divorce Court. In short, he wants me to produce a plan for a new and improved Divorce Court, before I call the present one hideous. But God forbid that I should thus enter into competition with the Lord Chancellor! It is just this invasion of the practical sphere which is really against my principles; the taking a practical measure into the world of ideas, and seeing how it looks there, is, on the other hand, just what I am recom? mending. It is because we have not been conversant enough with ideas that our practice now falls so short; it is only by becoming more conversant with them that we shall make it better.Our present Divorce Court is not the result of any legislator's meditations on the subject of marriage; rich people had an anomalous privilege of getting divorced; privileges are odious, and we said everybody should have the same chance. There was no meditation about THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 12 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME marriage here; that was just the mischief. If my practical critic will but himself accompany me, for a little while, into the despised world of ideas; f, renouncing any attempt to patch hastily up, with a noble disdain for transcendentalists, our present Divorce law, he will but allow his mind to dwell a little, first on the Catholic idea of marriage, which exhibits marriage as indissoluble, and then upon that Protestant idea of marriage, which exhibits it as a union terminable by mutual consent, if he will meditate well on these, and afterwards on the thought of what married life, according to its idea, really is, of what family life really is, of what social life really is, and national life, and public morals, he will find, fter a while, I do assure him, the whole state of his* an institution which neither makes divorce impossible nor makes it decent, which allows a man to get rid of his wife, or a wife of her husband, but makes them drag one another first, for the public edification, through a mire of unutterable infamy, when one looks at this charming institution, I say, with its crowded benches, its newspaper? reports, and its money? compensations, this institution in which the gross unregenerate British Philis? tine has indeed stamped an image of himself, one may be permitted to find the marriage? heory of Catholicism refreshing and elevating. Or when Protestantism, in virtue of its supposed rational and intellectual origin, gives the law to criticism too magisterially, criticism may and must remind it t hat its pretensions, in this respect, are illusive and do it harm; that the Reformation was a moral rather than an intellectual event; that Luther's theory of grace no more exactly reflects the mind of the spirit than Bossuet's philosophy of history reflects it; and that there is no more antecedent probability of the Bishop of Durham's stock of ideas being agreeable to? erfect reason than of Pope Pius the Ninth's. But criticism will not on that account forget the achievements of Protestantism in the practical and moral sphere; nor that, even in the intellectual sphere, Protestantism, *spirit quite changed; the Divorce Court will then seem to him, if he looks at it, strangely hideous; and he will at the same time discover in himself, as the fruit of his inward discipline, lights and resources for making it better, of which now he does not dream.He must make haste, though, for the condition of his â€Å"practical measure† is getting awkward; even the British Philistine begins t o have qualms as he looks at his offspring; even his â€Å"thrice? battered God of Palestine† is beginning to roll its eyes convulsively. though in a blind and stumbling manner, carried for? ward the Renaissance, while Catholicism threw itself violently across its path. I lately heard a man of thought and energy contrasting the want of ardour and movement which he now found amongst young men in this country with what he re? membered in his own youth, twenty years ago. â€Å"What reformers we were then! he exclaimed; â€Å"what a zeal we had! how we canvassed every institution in Church and State, and were prepared to remodel them all on first principles! † He was inclined to regret, as a spiritual flagging, the lull which he saw. I am disposed rather to regard it as a pause in which the turn to a new mode of spiritual progress is being accomplished. Everything was long seen, by the young and ar