Confucianism Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Confucianism - Term Paper Example Confucianism is a foundation of Chinese life, and has been for a huge number of years, yet during the Mao years, there was a severe cleansing of this educated man’s lessons. For the individuals of China, Mao’s brutal battle against the lessons of Confucius are baffling without a doubt. Be that as it may, when one peruses the lessons of Confucius, it isn't astounding that Mao thought every single Confucian researcher were counter progressives. Mao appreciated the political way of thinking of Legalism, clarified by Han Fei, an opponent of Confucius. Mao’s scorn of the lessons of Confucius was on the grounds that they conflicted with the lessons of Han Fei. A tyrant government like Mao’s would stress the supreme intensity of the state over its subjects, rebuffing everybody aside from the ruler, and would think about law as a device to monitor its kin. During the time of the social upheaval, Mao needed unlimited oversight. Absolutism was the manner in which he saw for China to go ahead. Mao accepted that the administration was almighty and individuals were there to serve the legislature. This anyway was not what Confucius instructed. Despite the fact that Confucius accepted that the Government was significant, his view was that the legislature existed to benefit the individuals. A tyrant arrangement of administration accepts that the arrangement of extreme disciplines is important so as to run the state and keep away from disarray, where Confucius put stock in generosity, mankind and resilience. The political way of thinking of Confucius is established in his conviction that a ruler ought to learn self-control, and should show others how its done treating his kin with affection and concern. â€Å"The connection among bosses and inferiors resembles that between the breeze and the grass. The grass must twist, when the breeze blows across it. (The Analects By Confucius Section 3 Part 12) Confucius accepted that what described a decent rule r was the ownership of de or ‘virtue† which was a sort of good force that pulled in devotees without the need to depend on power. He who practices government by methods for his uprightness might be contrasted with the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.†(The Analects By Confucius Section 1 Part 2) These convictions are absolutely inverse to what a dictator system accepts , subsequently would not be feasible for governments, for example, Mao’s to receive. Another component of the lessons of Confucius identify with training. He doesn't put stock in instinct and holds fast to the rule that the best way to truly comprehend a subject is to examine it minutely. He stated, Learning without thought is work lost; thought without learning is risky. (The Analects By Confucius Section 1 Part 2) Confucius likewise stresses the significance of honesty and slanders sycophancy. The Mao years in China, reared a hatred for educated peopl e and an aversion for learning. Mao’s Red Guards were requested to annihilate every old propensity customs and thinking in the public eye. Consequently the astute lessons of Confucius were covered till that was the ideal opportunity to restore them indeed. As China remains at the junction today, there is a cognizant exertion to turn around the impact of Mao’s disdain of savvy people and his hatred for conventional types of learning. The unexpected turnaround in China’s arrangement of rebuilding of Confucian way of thinking clue at both household just as universal reasons. In its push to make the country more extravagant, Chinese individuals are being urged to concentrate on instruction. The quantity of Chinese understudies took a crack at colleges the world over is a telling case of how China is returning to the lessons of

Urban And Social Policy At SIPA What You Need To Know COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Urban And Social Policy At SIPA What You Need To Know COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog In the 21st century, it is absolutely pivotal for policymakers to understand the phenomenon of urbanization. Today, half of the world’s people reside in cities, and experts agree that this trend shows no sign of abating. According to Urban Habitat, by 2050 six billion inhabitants will call cities home. Because of this dramatic population explosion experienced by cities around the globe, there must be urban experts that can assess issues pertaining to growth. How will children in these areas be educated? Is there access to quality healthcare? What about transportation options, and national security issues, and housing policies, and crumbling infrastructure? This is where SIPA’s urban and social policy (USP) concentration comes in. The USP concentration at SIPA is purposely flexible; one chooses to specialize in either urban policy or social policy, and is required to take one of the offered core courses (I took Critical Issues In Urban Public Policy with former New York City Mayor David Dinkins and highly recommend it). After meeting those guidelines, students are free to explore the wide range of USP offerings, and the breadth of classes is really fantastic. The obvious observation on USP at SIPA is that there is no better place to study urban issues than in the heart of New York City. The school is able to draw on its strategic location and use the Big Apple as a supplement to the coursework. Why read about issues in transportation when you can speak to officials at the MTA and observe commuter patterns on the subway? Why sit through a powerpoint lecture on green spaces and urban renewal when you can go visit the High Line or the revamped Hudson River Park? Coupled with SIPA’s ability to attract professors with extensive experience in city government (USP Program Director Ester Fuchs is a prime example) and the ability to intern in a field that matches your interests, I would be hard-pressed to come up with a better scenario for those interested in urban studies. Moreover, our dual-degree program is perfectly aligned for students who want to get an education in public administration or international affairs and also delve deeper into another area of expertise. Aspiring city planners and architects should look into our program with GSAAP, future social workers should look into our partnership with Columbia’s School of Social Work, and budding teachers should look into taking classes with Teacher’s College. It is so easy for students to develop a curriculum that addresses urban issues and meets their career goals. Through my coursework in USP, I have had the privilege of taking classes on modern urban terrorism, sustainability in cities, and land use issues. I also am looking forward to my capstone workshop next semester, when I will be able to apply the skills I have honed in the classroom and apply them to a real-world scenario. If you are interested in reshaping our cities and in turn, reshaping society, I urge you to take a closer look at SIPA’s USP program.

The Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals of Alabama

Ethical Decision Making The Sarbanes-Oxley Act Essay

Is ethics concerning decision making merely an accepted way of life, a trust factor, or a concern for reputation? Is ethical thinking and decision making conclusions right for one individual or firm and wrong for another? Do ethics encompass a universal concept or do they reside solely in an individual realm such as one’s Id or ego as Freud claimed? Finally, do acts such as The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) create a sound solution to the problem of ethical or non-ethical decision making in public firms? According to many scholars, the subject of corporate ethical decision making has many different avenues, such as what Zhong states â€Å"involves(ing) systematic and analytic deliberation† which also involve â€Å"intelligent choices†. While both†¦show more content†¦How has our recent dismay, concerns, and the actions of firms concerning ethical thinking, or the lack thereof relates to the past observations and does our recent laws and directives, such as SOX create as safety net to investors, employees, and the economy as well as drives the ethical decision making of CEO’s and CFO’s of public companies? Who benefits? Advantages and Disadvantages of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 Should CEOs and CFOs be held accountable for fraudulent accounting practices? Should investors have complete and accurate information regarding potential investments? Following the Enron scandal in 2001, when Enron filed for bankruptcy after it was discovered that the company employed improper accounting practices, the alarm rang on Capitol Hill and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) of 2002 was penned. SOX is one of the most significant regulatory reform’s since the Great Depression (McAdams et al, 2009, p.390). No longer was it publicly acceptable in the United States for CEOs and CFOs to lead their companies toward disaster and then use golden parachutes on the way down. As thousands of Enron’s employees lost everything, accountability of those who made millions leading companies was at the forefront. As we seek to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of SOX legislation, we must understand why there was a need for significant reform. Prior to this Act, government oversight of publicly heldShow MoreRelatedSarbanes Oxley Act Of 2002 Essay1421 Words   |  6 PagesSarbanes Oxley Act Jason Stigal FIN/571 November 6, 2016 James Traylor Abstract Enron’s fraudulent financial practices lead to the Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002. Mistakes made by the company and their leadership shocked the world and cost billions. Enron’s leadership could have taken steps to prevent or mitigate the repercussions of their actions. The act restored ethical and reliable financial practices to the market.The major provisions of the act made corporations responsibility forRead MoreEssay Ethics Article Review886 Words   |  4 Pagesaround business practices. Included in these businesses practices are accounting and financial decision-making. Both of these require high standards of ethics as many people rely on the information produced by them. The lack of ethics results in misinformation and the lack of trust. This paper will first provide a brief summary of an article that discusses ethics in accounting and financial decision-making. After that, this article will be related to assigned readings and to an organization’s currentRead MoreEvents Leading Up to the The Sarbanes-Oxley Act Essay examples1203 Words   |  5 PagesThe Sarbanes-Oxley Act was enacted on July 30, 2002. It was enacted by the 107th United States Congress. It is named after sponsors U.S. Senator Paul Sarbanes and U.S. Representative Michael G. Oxley. It is also known as the ‘Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act’ in the Senate and ‘Corporate and Auditing Accountability and Responsibility Act’ in the House. The main purpose of this act was to protect investors by improving the accuracy and reliability of corporate disclosuresRead MoreSarbanes-Oxley Act Essay727 Words   |  3 PagesSarbanes-Oxley Act Dana Smith LAW/321 December 6, 2011 Michelle Hamilton Sarbanes-Oxley Act In the corporate world today the rules and regulations are stricter than they were in early 2000. The development of corporate governance that established procedures to be used by officers and directors for lines of responsibility, approval, oversight by key stockholders, and set the rules for corporate decision making became more extreme. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) of 2002 made the use ofRead MoreSarbanes Oxley And The Oxley Act1358 Words   |  6 Pagestaken place were so severe that an Act was created in response to them in hopes to prevent these scandals from happening. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act, also referred to as SOX or Sarbanes-Oxley, was created by Senator Paul Sarbanes and Representative Michael Oxley and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on July 30, 2002. The creation and passing of the act was so tremendous that â€Å"in the opinion of most observers of securities legislation† Sarbanes-Oxley was â€Å"viewed as the most important newRead MoreLW C1 Study Guide1467 Words   |  6 Pagesthrough this student plan, type in your answers to the questions below and create a study guide using the key terms from each section. You may also consider using the key terms to create flash cards that can be used as you prepare for the exam. ETHICAL ISSUES IN BUSINESS: Chapters 1-4 For each of the chapters do the following: Look up the answers to the questions asked below. Answer the end of chapter question (there are only a few) and check your answers. Complete the interactive quizzesRead MoreImportance of Ethics in Accounting1065 Words   |  5 Pagesaccounting industry is constantly growing and changing. Consequently, difficult decisions have to be made every day. While accountants follow a simple code of conduct; nevertheless, due to the infamous scandal of Enron, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was constructed to reestablish confidence in the public marketplace. The importance of ethics and integrity are highly significant to individuals in this profession. In fact, ethical behavior in accounting is described as â€Å"societies accepted standards ofRead MoreWeek 1 Knowledge Check1287 Words   |  6 PagesCompany Mission 100% 9 10 11 Company Goals and Objectives 100% 12 13 Three Levels of Strategy à ¢ Corporate, Business-Level, Functional 100% 14 15 Strategic Management Process 100% 17 18 Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 Management Ethics 16 Concept: The Stakeholder Approach to Social Responsibility. Concepts Mastery The Stakeholder Approach to Social Responsibility. 0% Questions 1 2 1. For the past 28 years, ABC, IncRead MoreSarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 Essay1294 Words   |  6 PagesSarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 ACC/561 Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 Following a number of discovered fraud scandals committed by well-known corporations and in order to restore public confidence in the stock market and trading of securities, the United States congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in the year 2002. As a result of the act endorsement by the New York Stock Exchange and the Securities and Exchange Commission, among many other national overseeing committees, a number of rules and regulationsRead MoreEssay about Details of the Sarbanes Oxley Act 20021060 Words   |  5 Pagesfindings properly. Since the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, there have been provisions that have directly affected auditors. This paper will include the details of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, how ethics and independence have affected auditors, as well implementation of new standards based on the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, provided changes in the regulations of the issuers in the public structures in the United States, as well as non-United States issuers. The Act applies to all issuers including

Theories of Creativity - 1923 Words

Theories of Creativity and Quality Theories of Creativity and Quality Theories of creativity are vast. Several psychological theories on the process of creativity are chronicled. Some theorists explain creativity as intrinsic creative motivations, which individuals create a project for the sake of creating (Wibell, 2011). Other theorists convey the brain controls levels of creativity, and mental illness has an impact on creative process. Further, many believe the humanistic theory of creativity spawns the creative process. Through self-actualization creativity comes in peak experiences. The quality of the work depends on what is measured. The quality of the creative work depicts the message of the writing. The message can be†¦show more content†¦Art is considered psychological art and appears to be generated by primary processes. With this Maslow’s humanistic theory of creativity ties into with his theory about needs requiring to be met before reaching a higher point of creativity. Visionary art which derives its existence fro m the hinterlands of the mans mind, is the type of art where the strange worlds and ideas--described by the mental illness theory of creativity--are generated from, as it connects creative individuals with the super-human and timeless worlds beyond their conscious knowing. A plausible explanation for the relation of both the humanistic and mental illness theories similarities is attributed to author, Koestler who fails to represent any particular school of thought, but has had much success in creativity research. His premise on creativity is â€Å"bisociation† a term â€Å"coined by Koestler meaning to join unrelated, often conflictual, information in a new way.† He also goes on to say that this is similar to being double minded or able to think on more than one plane of thought simultaneously, and Frank Barron (1988) places the possibility that developing the ability to â€Å"tolerate chaos or seemingly opposite information is characteristic of creative individualsâ €  (Bergquist, 2009). In short, appears both theories may very well be related, but worded differently. TheShow MoreRelatedThe Theory Of Creativity : The Centre Of The Creativity Process1650 Words   |  7 PagesCreativity is something that exists and occurs every day but the cause or explanation of this phenomenon is still in question. Many psychological theories place the origin of creativity stemming from the individual or through the ‘creative ideas’ they produce. Other theories such as those proposed by psychologist Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi suggest that creativity begins with the interaction of three shaping factors the: person, field and domain. This essay will first discuss how the individual hasRead MoreTheory Of Intelligence, Creativity, And Scaffolding Essay1994 Words   |  8 Pagesand theories in the area of Multiple Intelligences and Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, Creativity, and Scaffolding. In the area of Multiple Intelligences and Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, it will talk about Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory and Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, as well as the affect it will have on teaching practices. With Creativity, it will discuss Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of Creativity, and Keith Sawyers approach to Creativity. AndRead MoreA Critical Examination Of System Theory, Everyday Creativity, And Ethics And Creativity Essay2215 Words   |  9 PagesAdapt or Die: A Critical Examination of System Theory, Everyday Creativity, and Ethics and Creativity Who is a creative individual? What are the acceptable limits under which she or he can exhibit and practice creativity? Is creativity a moral or amoral concept? A creative individual is one who is able to adapt to everyday challenges through ingenious ideas and focused actions. As a specie, we are where we are today because of everyday creativity, not necessarily due to big ideas alone. Of theRead MoreThe Theory Associated Creativity More So With Divergent Thinking Essay1525 Words   |  7 PagesGuilford thru-out his studies and observations of people identified that people preferred either divergent or convergent types of thinking. His theory associated creativity more so with divergent thinking. During his studies, he witnessed creative people displaying divergent thinking characteristics more often than those that were less creative. These characteristics included: fluency, the ability to produce a great number of ideas in a short period of time; originality, the ability to produceRead MoreDiscuss the Relationship Between Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Development. What Role Do Creativity and Problem Solving Play in This Relationship? Refer to Both Theory and Examples from the Business World to Support Your Discussion.1637 Words   |  7 PagesDiscuss the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development. What role do creativity and problem solving play in this relationship? Refer to both theory and examples from the business world to support your discussion. Entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development are linked to one another through different factors and characteristics of each other. Entrepreneurship â€Å"is the result of what entrepreneurs do and refers to events and their economic impact† (LumsdaineRead MoreDiscuss the Relationship Between Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Development. What Role Do Creativity and Problem Solving Play in This Relationship? Refer to Both Theory and Examples from the Business World to Support Your Discussion.’2397 Words   |  10 PagesDiscuss the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development. What role do creativity and problem solving play in this relationship? Refer to both theory and examples from the business world to support your discussion.’ There are many links that bring together a relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development, and both creativity and problem solving play a large role within this relationship. Entrepreneurial activity can lead to innovation withinRead MoreGoogle : Organizational Methods Of Creativity1293 Words   |  6 PagesEnhance Creativity Name Institution Date Course ABSTRACT The study focuses on the methods that organizations use to enhance creativity. These methods varied considerably from one organization to the other leading to difference in performance. The research also investigates how creativity process determines the eventual organizational performance. In an attempt to improve the level of creativity, organisations use various models and theories. There are three common theories of creativity which include;Read MoreThe Three Frameworks Used By Taylor And Turner 20151270 Words   |  6 Pagesused by Taylor and Turner 2015 to explore relationships and creat ivity. Illustrate your answer with examples of theory, research and or application as appropriate. Creativity within relationships is vital for a seemingly healthy relationship. Creativity is ‘often associated with imagination and inspiration in the arts.. also vital for problem solving and development of new ideas’ (Taylor and Turner 2016a). Psychologist’s see creativity important because of it’s economic and cultural importance;Read MorePSY103 R7 Remembering Feeling Thinking Worksheet958 Words   |  4 Pages Part II: Theories of Emotion Summarize the four major theories of emotion. Identify which theory you think is the most valid. What makes this theory more valid to you than the others? Identify which theory of emotion you think is the least valid. What makes this theory less valid to you than the others? Your response must be at least 300 words. The four major theories of emotion are: The James-Lange theory, the Cannon-Bard theory, the Schacter-Singer theory and the Lazarus theory. The James-LangeRead MoreEssay about Cypop 71055 Words   |  5 PagesCYPOP 7 – Promote creativity and creative learning in young children 1.1 – Analyse the differences between creative learning and creativity Creative learning is about how children are actively involved in their own learning and their ability to make choices and decisions. This can be achieved by providing a creative environment, allowing exploration through play and praising the child’s creative efforts. Creative learning is about helping children develop imaginative thinking through exploration

Red Legwarmers free essay sample

It’s strange how the most ordinary things can inspire us and shape our lives. My life changed one morning before school when I was 12 years old. So far the year had been jarring. My best friend had moved away that summer and I felt alone in a sea of strangers. Even though the prospects of my day being good were unlikely, I felt exuberant when I looked into my closet and prepared to choose my outfit for the day. First I put on a new gray pleated skirt and a white blouse. Then, while rummaging through my mother’s old ballet bag, I found a pair of red legwarmers and with a twinge of excitement; I pulled them over my feet and onto my legs. Before having the opportunity to change my mind, I grabbed my book bag and descended the stairs, only to see my father standing at the kitchen counter. We will write a custom essay sample on Red Legwarmers or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Instantly, I was afraid of what his reaction might be because he is a straightforward type of man who gives out compliments sparingly. But when he heard my footsteps on the tiles he looked at me with a shocked expression and then smiled. He then said with sincerity, â€Å"Wow. That’s a nice outfit.† I was stunned. â€Å"Thank you† I replied and continued on my normal routine. But normal was far from how I felt. Instead I felt enlightened, and decided to harness that feeling and never let it go. At lunch that day, my friends complimented the leg warmers and asked where they could buy their own. With the new excitement, I no longer cared about fitting into the crowd. As time went on I experimented more and more with my personal style. This became my passion and it could lead me to ultimate happiness. It would drive me each and every day. Soon I was sketching various outfits in my notebook and planning what I would wear during the week. Still, I didn’t know where this passion might lead, but one day I started reading a Vogue magazine and right away my eyes were glued to the glossy pages. Reading through each article and spread adorned with beautiful clothing, I suddenly saw fashion in a way I never dreamed of before. Shortly afterwards, I realized exactly what I wanted to do. I would put together outfits with clothing from designers such as Oscar de la Renta and Marc Jacobs and use them to create a story for the readers. I would also write articles on runway shows or popular trends, perhaps even about the complex dynamics of the fashion industry. Ultimately I would want to inspire others just as I once was inspired myself. An idol of mine, Grace Coddington who is the creative director of Vogue, once said when asked why she wanted to be a stylist, â€Å"I like fairytales and I like dreaming. I try to weave the reality into the dream.† I hope to one day follow in her footsteps and create iconic images for a magazine. To this day, my heart still pounds when scanning the pages of Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar, and Elle. Every morning I pull out clothing from my closet and get thrilled to make my type of art. It all began one early morning, so unexpectedly. Who knew leg warmers could be so inspiring?

James Hutton Essay Example

James Hutton Paper James Hutton A report done by Sarah Lynn Brixey James Hutton was a Scottish geologist, naturalist, and experimental farmer. He is considered the father of modern geology. His theories of geology and geologic time, are also called deep time, and came to be included in theories which were called plutonism and uniformitarianism. Plutonism is the disproven theory that all rocks formed by solidification of a molten mass. Uniformitarianism means of or pertaining to the thesis that processes that operated in the remote geological past are not different from those observed now. Another definition of uniformitarianism is supporting, conforming to, or derived from a theory or doctrine about uniformity, esp. on the subject of geology. In this report on James Hutton, you will learn who he was, his theory of rock formations, and his publication career. James Hutton was born in Edinburgh on June 3, 1726 as one of five children of a merchant who was also Edinburgh City Treasurer, but died when James was very young. He attended school at the Edinburgh High School, where he was particularly interested in mathematics and chemistry. At the age of 14, he attended the University of Edinburgh as a â€Å"student of humanity†. He was an intern to a lawyer at the age of 17, but took more of an interest in chemical experiments than legal work. At the age of 18, he became a doctor’s assistant and attended lectures of medicine at the University of Edinburgh. Three years later, he studied medicine in Paris, and in 1749, he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine at Leyden with a thesis on blood circulation. Around 1747, he had a son by a woman named Miss Edington, and other than giving the boy financial assistance, he had little to do with him. We will write a custom essay sample on James Hutton specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on James Hutton specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on James Hutton specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The boy went on to become a post office clerk in London. After receiving his degree, Hutton returned to London, and in the summer of 1750, at the age of 24, went back to Edinburgh and resumed experiments with close friend, James Davie. Their work on production of sal ammoniac from soot led to their partnership in profitable chemical works, manufacturing the crystalline salts which were used for dyeing, metalwork, and as smelling salts that were previously available only from natural sources and that had to be imported from Egypt. Hutton owned and rented out properties in Edinburgh, which employed a factor to manage this business. James Hutton inherited his father’s Berwickshire farms of Slighthouses, which are lowland farms that had been in the family since 1713, and a hill farm of Nether Monynut. In the early 1750s, he moved to Slighthouses, with his goal being to making improvements, which introduced farming practices from other parts of Britain and experimenting with plant and animal cultivation. He recorded his ideas and innovations in an unpublished thesis on The Elements of Agriculture. This developed his interest in meteorology and geology, and by 1753, he had become very fond of studying the surface of the earth, and was looking with anxious curiosity into every pit or ditch or bed of a river he came across. Working in a clearing and draining his farm provided many opportunities, and he noticed that a vast proportion of the present rocks are composed of materials afforded by the destruction of bodies, animal, vegetable and mineral, of more ancient formation†. His theoretical ideas began to come together in 1760, and while his farming activities continued, in 1764, he went on a geological tour of the north of Scotland with George Maxwell-Clerk. In 1768, Hutton returned to Edinburgh, leaving his farms to tenants but continuing to take an interest in farm improvements and research, which included experiments carried out at Slighthouses. He developed a red dye made from the roots of the madder plant. He had a house built in 1770 at St. John’s Hill, Edinburgh, overlooking Salisbury Crags. He was one of the most influential participants in the Scottish Enlightenment, and fell in with numerous first-class minds in the sciences including John Playfair, philosopher David Hume, and economist Adam Smith. He was a particularly close friend of Joseph Black, and the two of them together with Adam Smith founded the Oyster Club for weekly meetings, that included Hutton and Black to find a venue, which turned out to have rather disreputable associations. Between 1767 and 1774, Hutton had considerable close involvement with the construction of the Forth and Clyde Canal, making full use of his geological knowledge, both as a shareholder and as a member of the committee of management, and attended meetings including extended site inspections of all the works. In 1777, he published a pamphlet on Considerations on the Nature, Quality and distinctions of Coal and Culm, which successfully helped to obtain relief from removal duty on carrying small coal. Hutton hit on a variety of ideas to explain the rock formations he saw around him, but according to Playfair, he â€Å"was in no haste to publish his theory; for he was one of those who are much more delighted with the contemplation of truth, than with the praise of having discovered it. † After some 25 years of work, his Theory of the Earth; or and Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe was read to meetings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in two parts, first by his friend Joseph Black on March 7, 1785, and the second by himself on April 4, 1785. He subsequently read an abstract of his dissertation Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration and Stability to the Society meeting on July 4, 1785, which he had printed and circulated privately. In it, his theory states that the solid part of the present land appears in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find reason to conclude:  ·That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and has been formed by the operation of second causes.  ·That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place.  ·That while the present land is forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is presently. Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things must be required.  ·The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials.  ·The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean. At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm Mountains in the Scottish Highlands, Hutton found granite penetrating metamorphic schists, in a way, which indicated that the granite had been molten at the time. This showed him that granite formed from cooling of molten rock, not precipitation out of water, as others at the time had believed, and that the granite must be younger than the schists. He went on to find a similar penetration of volcanic rock through sedimentary rock near the center of Edinburgh, at Salisbury Crags, adjoining Arthur’s Seat, which is now known as Hutton’s Section. He found other examples on the Isle of Arran, also known as Hutton’s Unconformity and in Galloway. In 1787, Hutton noted what is now known as the Hutton Unconformity at Inchbonny, Jedburgh, in layers of sedimentary rock. Hutton reasoned that there must have been several cycles, each involving deposition on the seabed, uplift with tilting and erosion, then undersea again for further layers to be deposited, and there have been many cycles before over an extremely long history. Although Hutton privately circulated printed version of the abstract of his Theory, which he read at a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on July 4, 1785, the theory as read at the March 7, 1785 and April 4, 1785 meetings did not appear in print until 1788. It was titled Theory of the Earth; or and Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe and appeared in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Following criticism, especially Richard Kirwan’s, who thought he was an atheist and not logical, among other things, Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795, consisting of the 1788 version of his theory that included slight additions along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite. It included a review of alternative theories, such as those of Thomas Burnet and Georges-Louis Leclerc, and Comte de Buffon. This whole was entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy when the third volume was completed in 1794. Its 2,138 pages prompted Playfair to remark that â€Å"The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly be objected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves†. His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popular Neptunist theories of Abraham Gottlob Werner that all rocks had precipitated out of single enormous flood. Hutton proposed that the interior of the Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine, which drove the creation of new rock; land was eroded by air and water and deposited into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was dubbed â€Å"Plutonist† in contrast to the flood-oriented theory. As well as combating the Neptunists, he also opened up the concept of deep time for scientific purposes, in opposition to Catastrophism. Rather than accepting that the Earth was no more than a few thousand years old, he maintained that the Earth must be much older, with a istory extending indefinitely into the distant past. His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that processes still happening on earth in the present day had caused them. As these processes were very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, in order to allow time for the changes. Before long, scie ntific inquiries provoked by his claims had pushed back the age of the earth into the millions of years- still too short when compared with what is known as in the 21st century, but a distinct improvement. The prose of Principles of Knowledge was so obscure, in fact, that it also impeded the acceptance of Hutton’s geological theories. Restatements of his geological ideas by John Playfair in 1802 and then Charles Lyell in the 1830s removed this hindrance. If anything, Hutton’s ideas were eventually accepted too well. At least some of the initial resistance to modern scientific ideas like plate tectonics and asteroid strikes causing mass extinctions can be attributed to too-strict adherence to uniformitarianism. It was not merely the Earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere. The same volume in which his Theory of Earth appeared contained also a Theory of Rain. He contended that the amount of moisture, which the air can retain in solution, increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is regulated by the humidity of the air on the one hand, and mixing of different air currents in the higher atmosphere on the other. In conclusion, James Hutton was a great man who did many things. On a more personal note, reading and learning about him peaked my curiosity in the things that we are learning in Earth Science class, and also to an extent in Geography. Before reading this, I didn’t really care about geology or rocks, for that matter. But after reading this, it sort of made me want to learn more about geology. Bibliography Page 1. http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/277702/James-Hutton 2. plutonism. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2008. Merriam-Webster Online. 1 September 2008 http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/plutonism